Territorial acquisitions of the United States

Introduction

The story of the territorial acquisitions of the United States is a very wonderful story. The patriotic citizen of today points with pride to the men and events that helped to give independence to our nation. His heart thrills at the mention of Concord and Yorktown. He feels profoundly grateful to the heroes of the time of the American Revolution, regardless of whether they be soldiers or statesmen, and justly so for we owe to them a debt of gratitude that can never be repaid.

But while it is true that we should hold in sacred memory the names of the brave men who helped to transform the thirteen English colonies into thirteen "free and independent states," it is equally true that we should not torget these other brave men who continued the work so nobly begun. The heroes of the Revolution made us a nation, but it was the work of men no less heroes to extend the boundaries of that nation until from a narrow strip of land along the Atlantic seaboard, it had come to reach from sea to sea and to include lands and islands which the patriots of 75 did not even know to exist.

To tell something of this great movement, to sketch briefly the inside history of the various land cessions is the purpose of this little volume.

The original basis of this work was a series of papers prepared by the author in a co.urse in Territorial Expansion of the United States, taken at Oklahoma University in 1911 under Professor J. S. Buchanan, Head of the Department of History and Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. Later in the same year when it was decided to publish these papers in book form, several weeks were spent in the University Library, going- over the ground very carefully, verifying dates and figures and adding much new material.

The volume is not research work in any sense of the word. It is merely a collection from many sources and a compilation of the salient facts and most interesting episodes in the various territorial acquisitions of our country. It was written primarily for the use of students and teachers who are interested in the wonderful history of the development of our nation and it is earnestly honed that they may find here something that will prove both helpful and interesting. It is further hoped that the reading of this little volume may give a clearer insight into many things connected with American History and instil in some one's mind the desire to read and study for himself the remarkable story of our territorial growth. If such should prove the case even in a very few instances the, book will have fulfilled its mission and the time and labor spent in its preparation will not be regretted.

E. E. DALE.

Blair, Okla., May 1, 1912.

Chapter One Louisiana

The French were not slow to enter the "New World" discovered by Columbus. Led neither by the desire of conquest and dreams of untold wealth in gold and silver like the Spaniards, nor driven by religious persecution like so many of the English, they nevertheless came to America in large numbers. Attracted to our shores at first by the fisheries of the Banks of Newfoundland, and by the profits of the fur trade with the Indians, there were doubtless among them, some far seeing men who soon began to dream of a vast French empire in America.

The earliest French explorations were along the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. In 1535 Cartier reached the present site of Montreal, while Champlain, "The Father of New France," laid the foundations of Quebec in 1608. In 1666 Marquette, a Jesuit missionary, came to New France, he worked among the western Indians for some years and in 1673, accompanied by a soldier named Joliet, he started on an expedition to explore the Mississippi River. They floated down the river in birch-bark canoes until they reached a point below the mouth of the Arkansas, when fearing capture by the Indians, they returned.

In the same year that Marquette came to New France came also Robert La Salle. He, in company with his friends De Tonty, "The Iron-handed," and Father Hennepin, explored the western lake country and the upper waters of the Mississippi. But La Salle was eager to explore the great river still further, and in 1682 he organized an expedition and floated down it to its mouth. On April 6th 1682 he reached the delta, and April 9th he stood on the bank of the most western channel, where it empties into the gulf and with the assistance of De Tonty and others he erected a cross, claiming the country in the name of Louis XIV of France. La Salle called the country Louisiana in honor of his soverign while the great river he named "The Colbert" in honor of his friend and patron the Colonial Minister of France.

In 1699 Iberville, another French explorer sailed along the coast near the mouth of the Mississippi, exploring it still further. He sailed through the river that bears his name and discovered a great shallow lake which he called "Pontchartrain" in honor of the French Minister of Marine. In the same year he founded a settlement at Biloxi Bay. Late in 1717 Bienville, a younger brother of Iberville founded the city of New Orleans.

By virtue of these explorations and settlements France laid claim to a vast territory. Under the law of nations, which was recognized even then, the discovery of the mouth of a river entitles the nation that discovers it, to all territory drained by such river. Thus France claimed all that great central region from the Alleghanies to the Rockies.

These claims overlapped those of England on the east as well as those of Spain on the west. In the unsettled west the indefinite boundary did not so much matter, but on the east, where the English were pushing their settlements rapidly westward, it was a matter of extreme importance and was one of the great causes of the "French and Indian War."

At the close of this war France, by a treaty of peace commonly known as "The Family Compact," signed November 3rd 1762, ceded to Spain "The Island of Orleans" and all her territory west of the Mississippi, and by the Treaty of Paris, about three months later, or February 10th 1763, ceded all her lands east of the Mississippi, except the Island of Orleans, to England. By this same Treaty of Paris, which was between Great Britain and Portugal on one part and France and Spain on the other, Spain ceded to England "The Floridas" and all that Spain owned on the North American continent "east and south-east of the river Mississippi." In exchange for this cession England re-ceded to Spain the city of Havana, which the English had captured in the late war, and the Island of Cuba.

Thus in 1763 all east of the Mississippi except the Island of Orleans belonged to Great Britain, and all west of the river and the Island of Orleans to Spain, while to France there remained not a single foot of her former splendid possessions on the North American continent.

The war clouds of the Revolution were now gathering thick and fast, but even before the storm burst upon the colonies in all its fury, enterprising settlers were pushing beyond the confines of the Alleghanies into the new country. During the French and Indian war Pittsburg. "The Gateway to the West" was founded upon the old site of Fort Duquesne. In 1769 Daniel Boone crossed the mountains and first saw the rich plains and fertile valleys of Kentucky. Six years later, in 1775, he led a band of settlers into that beautiful region and founded Boonesborough.

The war checked this immigration somewhat and indeed checked all commerce and peaceful pursuits. The few inhabitants of the regions beyond the mountains found that they must devote their entire energies to repelling Indian attacks, too often led by British renegades, and to laying the foundation of their new homes in the wilderness. But when the war closed settlers poured into the western country in great numbers, settlements grew up as if by magic, and soon these hardy pioneers in the valleys of the Ohio, the Cumberland and the Tennessee and other western rivers, began to seek an outlet to market for their surplus corn, hemp, tobacco and other products. To carry their crops back across the mountains was impossible, and while the Mississippi offered an easy outlet to market, the Spaniards refused us the navigation of that river. Hence we find about this time a great disaffection growing up in the minds of the people of this section. England had re-ceded "The Floridas" to Spain in the treaty of September 3rd 1783, and the settlers in the west now began to talk of seizing New Orleans and West Florida, or enough of it to insure the opening of the Mississippi.

They petitioned Congress for some relief for years but in vain, and just about the time that their patience had become exhausted, there reached even these remote settlements, rumors of a Constitutional Convention that was soon to meet to try to form a new and better government. So now their leaders urg- «d patience until the new government could be formed and relief asked from it. Their wise counsel prevailed, and the westerners waited, with as much patience as possible under such trying circumstances, until 1789 when the new government, under the Constitution, went into operation.

Again did they begin to petition the government for relief, urging that some steps be taken to compel Spain to give us the navigation of the Mississippi. This second period of disaffection lasted for more than five years. Again and again did the people of the west urge Congress to open the Mississippi by force if necessary, insisting that a war with Spain was preferable to present conditions. Their demands seemed to be unheeded, but just about the time their patience was, for the second time strained to the breaking point, the glad news reached them that a treaty had been concluded with Spain, October 27th 1895, giving us the "right of deposit" at New Orleans for a period of three years, and providing that at the expiration of that time the period should be extended if it had not been found injurious to the interests of Spain, in which case Spain agreed that some other point on the banks of the Mississippi should be designated as a place of deposit for American goods.

The terms of this treaty had been negotiated by Don Manuel Godoy, a Spanish diplomat best known as "The Prince of Peace," and the American ambassador at Madrid. The "right of deposit" meant that Americans should have the right to ship their goods to New Orleans, unload them there and re-ship to any part of the world. In addition to some other rather unimportant matters, the treaty also carefully defined the boundaries between the United State and Florida.

The news of this treaty was received with great rejoicing throughout the entire west and southwest, and for the next few years development in these regions was very rapid. The settlers raised great crops of corn, wheat, hemp and tobacco which they floated down the river to New Orleans, unloaded there and re-shipped to the various ports of Europe and America. Crowds of immigrants flocked into the country and business there became most flourishing.

The three year period had passed and more than two years more with no attempt on the part of Spain to discontinue the arrangement, when vague rumors began to reach the United States that Spain had retroceded Louisana to France.

Jefferson became President March 4th 1801. The rumors of retrocession had already begun to create a feeling of uneasiness among many people as to what the policy of France might be toward our navigation of the Mississippi. Jefferson at once appointed Robert Livingston as ambassador to France and gave him instructions to attempt to buy the Island of Orleans and West Florida. Should he find this impossible he was to make a treaty giving us the right of navigation of the Mississippi.

Livingston reached Paris November 10th 1801. Talleyrand at first denied that Louisana had been retroceded to France but just about this time Rufus King, our ambassador to Great Britain, sent to Jefferson a copy of Lucien Bonaparte's treaty of retrocession signed at San Ildefonso, and dated more than eight months before.

In justice to Talleyrand however it must be stated that the treaty had not yet been signed by the king of Spain. As a matter of fact there were two treaties of retrocession, both signed at San Ildefonso, a little city among the mountains of

Spain. The first treaty was negotiated by Berthier, and signed October 1st 1800. The second, negotiated by Lucien Bonaparte, merely emphasized and deepened the first, and was signed March 21st 1801. By these treaties Napoleon, who was then First Consul of France, agreed to place the Duke of Parma, son-in-law of the king and queen of Spain, upon the throne of Tuscany or "Kingdom of Etruria." In exchange for this Louisana was to be retroceded to France. However the King of Spain positively refused to sign the first treaty, and when the second was drawn in such a way as it was hoped would overcome his objections, he still with held his signature and refused to sign until October 15th 1802. He then affixed his signature only upon the pledge being made that France should never alienate the province, and the condition that if the Duke of Parma should ever lose his throne, then Louisana should revert to Spain. All these conditions were agreed to by France, Talleyrand giving a written pledge in the name of the First Consul.

The treaty was kept secret however and of course Livingston was entirely ignorant of its terms or conditions. However Talleyrand at last admitted the retrocession, and Livingston urged that West Florida and the Island of Orleans be sold to the United States. But Napoleon was obdurate. He had dreams of building up a French empire in the New World and was already planning an expedition to go and take possession of the country. And so Livingston's efforts seemed vain.

Yet he did not despair but held to his task, undismayed by the scant courtesy he sometimes received from the French government. He prepared a series of papers setting forth the benefits that both countries would derive by France's selling New Orleans and West Florida to the United States. These papers were delivered to Joseph Bonaparte who assured Livingston that they were carefully read by the First Consul yet they apparently had no effect. Livingston's letters to his government show plainly the disgust and disappointment that he felt. "Do not absolutely despair" was the most encouraging message that Jefferson could receive from him.

In the meantime conditions at home had become worse than before. Late in 1802 Morales, the Spanish Intendant at New Orleans, abrogated our right of deposit at that city, and again did the west and southwest find itself cut off from market. This region was now much less sparsely populated than it had been seven years before, and the excitement of the people soon rose to fever heat.

We know now that the act of Morales had no connection with the cession of Louisiana to France by Spain, and that it was even without the sanction of his own government. But to the people of the west who had but lately heard of the transfer of territory the act of Morales was regarded as indicative of what we might expect with France in possession of Louisiana. Open threats of war were made and the excitement soon extended to Congress. Yrujo was at this time the Spanish minister at Washington. He had married an American girl and was very friendly to the United States. He now promptly declared the act of Morales to be unauthorized and at once wrote to his government in regard to the matter, at the same time dispatching a letter to the Intendant rebuking him for his action.

These friendly measures of Yrujo however failed to quell the excitement. Senator Ross of Pennsylvania, one of the minority leaders of the Senate, offered a resolution looking to the immediate seizure of New Orleans. This resolution proposed to place five million dollars in the hands of the President with which to prosecute a war, and to raise fifty thousand troops before France had time to take possession of her newly acquired territory. This resolution was debated first in secret, and later in open session, and while lost yet it served to intensify the feeling.

Even the pacific Jefferson was aroused and while still maintaining that "Peace is our passion," he nevertheless wrote to Livingston: "The day that France takes possession of Louisiana we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation." Determined however to make one more effort to secure bypeaceful means the navigation of the Mississippi, Jefferson now appointed James Monroe as special Envoy to France to aid Livingston in the effort to purchase West Florida and New Orleans.

Jefferson had several motives for making this appointment. Livingston had proved himself able and persistent in his efforts but he was old, hard of hearing and had apparently become somewhat discouraged, while Monroe was young, brilliant and energetic, and intensely popular with the French people. It cannot be denied however that one of Jefferson's chief motives was to allay the excitement among the people of the west Dy holding out to them the hope that everything would soon be settled Peacefully and satisfactorily.

Monroe's instructions were simple but explicit. Livingston had been authorized to expend two millions of dollars. Monroe was authorized to expend up to ten millions of dollars if necessary and to grant certain commercial privileges. He was to buy New Orleans and West Florida. Failing in this he was to buy New Orleans and a strip of land along the east bank of the river. Should he find it impossible to do either, he was to negotiate a treaty giving us the right of the navigation of the Mississippi, or secure for us the right of deposit at New Orleans. His appointment as special Envoy was confirmed by the Senate January 13th 1803. He sailed for France March 8th, and reached Paris April 12th.

Tn the meantime matters had arisen which compelled Napoleon to give up his long cherished dream of French empire in America. France owned at this time the island of San Domingo. This island Napoleon rightly regarded as the key to the newly acquired domain of Louisiana. But while the First Consul was busy with his plans for vast colonies in the New World, the blacks of San Domingo rose in revolt under the leadership of a man whose name has become famous as that of one of the great military leaders of history. This man was Toussaint L'Ouverture. He was very successful. One French army he destroyed and a second died of yellow fever.

Leclerc was now sent to San Domingo with a new army. He was Napoleon's brother-in-law, having married the beautiful Pauline Bonauarte. and wa sa very able general. He set sail with his expedition late in 1801, just about the time of Livingston's arrival in Paris. For a time it seemed that he would restore order in the island. Toussaint was invited by Leclerc to a conference but no sooner was the leader of the blacks within the power of the faithless Frenchman than he was treacherously seized, hurried on board a French vessel and carried to Europe to cough his life away in a dismal dungeon of the fortress of Joux, high up in the Jura Mountains.

But even the loss of their leader did not quell the fighting spirit of the Islanders. Early in January 1803, the news reached Paris that Leclerc himself was dead, his army swept away, and the blacks hopelessly beyond control. Napoleon had expected to use San Domingo as a base from which to colonize and control Louisiana, and the overthrow of his power there was fatal to all his plans. He had also fully resolved upon going to war with England for he was already weary of being merely a peaceful governor. For this war he needed money most sorely. England was supreme upon the sea and her insular positio nrendered her safe from attack.

Napoleon believed that if he had a powerful fleet he might easily throw an army across the channel for the invasion of England. To secure money for a fleet he therefore reluctantly gave up his dream of French empire in America, and resolved to sell Louisiana.

There were other reasons why Napoleon decided to sell the province. To colonize it without San Domingo as a base he felt would be impracticable. Moreover he was quite sure that he should lose the territory as soon as he went to war with England. Great Britain with her powerful fleet and her colonial possessions in the West Indies would have a tremendous advantage and Napoleon felt certain that one of her first acts would be to seize New Orleans and the mouth of the Mississ-

With characteristic reticence Napoleon kept his plans to

himself doubtless anticipating bitter opposition from his ministry and in this he was right. For when he at last made known his plan to sell the province, even his brothers manifested bitter opposition to the scheme and vainly endeavored to dissuade him from his purpose. Lucien, who had negotiated the treaty at San Ildefonso, reminded his brother of the solemn pledge never to alienate the province and vainly strove to persuade the First Consul not to violate this obligation.

Once he had decided to sell the province Napoleon made his plans known to Talleyrand. A few days later he explained the proposition to Barbe'-Marbois, his Minister of Finance and to Decres Minister of Marine. Marbois had been Consul- General to the United States before the French Revolution. He had there married an American wife and was very friendly to the United States. In consequence he most heartily concurred with the plan but Decres bitterly opposed it. Napoleon's mind was made up however and the next morning at day-break he sent for Marbois and instructed him to see Livingston at once and offer to sell the entire territory. It was really Talleyrand however who, a few hours later, proposed to Livingston to sell the whole province to the United States. This was April 11th 1803.

Livingston, who for a year and a half had striven in vain to buy even a narrow strip of land along the east bank of the river, could not, at first, believe that Talleyrand was in earnest. Convinced at last that such was the case, he protested that he had no authority to buy the entire country but mentioned twenty million francs as a sum that he believed the United

States would be willing to pay. Talleyrand suggested a hundred million francs, which Livingston insisted was exorbitant. As Monroe was expected to arrive within the next day or two, nothing further was said at the time. Later in the day Livingston approached Talleyrand upon the subject but received only evasive answers, and the next day April 12th, at one P. M. Mr. Monroe alighted from his post-chaise in front of his Paris hotel.

The two Americans spent the next day in looking over papers and discussing plans. While at supper that evening with a small party of friends, in Livingston's apartments, they saw Marbois walking in the garden. He was at once invited to come in and join them at supper. He did so and while little was said of their mission, yet Marbois intimated that he knew something of the matter, and asked Livingston to come to his house at the conclusion of the supper. Livingston went, and after a long talk the bargain was largely decided at midnight that night. Before he slept Livingston wrote to Jefferson the progress that had been made, saying that while nothing definite had been done, yet he believed that they should buy.

A week was now spent in haggling over the price. Then Monroe fell ill and at the expiration of a fortnight from the time of his arrival negotiations had not advanced a step. Each party now drew up a draft of a treaty, Marbois placing the price at one hundred millions of francs and the Americans at fifty million francs to be paid to France, and twenty million francs due American citizens by France that was to be assumed by the United States. At last they agreed on sixty million to be paid to France and twenty million to be assumed.

The 30th of April Marbois consulted with Napoleon. The latter had instructed his minister to take fifty million francs if no more could be obtained, and was well pleased with the terms as submitted by Marbois.

May 1st Monroe was presented at the palace and he and Livingston dined with the First Consul. At this dinner little or nothing was said about the cession, but that same evening the American Envoys had another and final discussion with Marbois.

May 2nd the treaty written in French was signed by Monroe and Livingston for the United States and by Marbois for France. Two or three days later the English copy was ready and was then signed, both copies being antedated to April 30th.

By the terms of the treaty the United States paid sixty million francs, ($11,250,000.) in U. S. six per cent bonds, maturing in fifteen years, and assumed debts due by France to citizens of the United States for twenty million more, or ($3,7'0,000).

France was given the right of navigation of the Mississippi and her ships loaded with French goods were given the right to discharge their cargoes at New Orleans or any other port in Louisiana on the same terms as American ships for a period of twelve years and afterward on the same terms as the ships of the most favored nations. The inhabitants of the territory were to be admitted as soon as possible to full citizenship, with all the rights and privileges of American citizens. This last clause was proposed and insisted upon by Napoleon himself.

The negotiations between Marbois and the two Americans were, throughout the entire affair, carried on in a very frank and friendly manner as between three friends as indeed they were, and yet each did his best for his government. When the French copy of the treaty was signed the three diplomats arose, shook hands and congratulated one another upon the successful and satisfactory culmination of their labors. "We have lived long," said Livingston, "but this is the noblest w rk of our lives. From this day the United States takes her place among Powers of the first rank, and the English lose all exclusive interest in the affairs of America." Napoleon upon learning that the treaty was signed said "I have this day raised up England a maritime rival that will some day humble her pride."

Livington had had a long and varied public career. He had been on the committee of five that drafted the Declaration of Independence, and as Chancellor of New York had administered the oath of office to Washington at his inauguration. Upon his leaving France in 1805 Napoleon presented him with a diamond-studded snuff box, the lid of which contained a portrait of Napoleon by Isabey, and New York has put up his statue in the Hall of Fame at Washington as one of her two typical great men. Monroe's brilliant public career is too well known to need comment here, but of all the public acts of these two illustrious statesmen none can begin to compare in importance with the purchase of Louisiana. Truly Livingston was right when he said, "This is the noblest work of our lives."

The papers were sent at once to Washington and reached that city July 14th. Congress was convened October 17th. The opposition to the treaty in Congress was very bitter and there was also much opposition in the country at large. The constitutionality of the purchase was violently assailed, while the President and his new policy were attacked and ridiculed in the most caustic language.

Jefferson himself doubted the constitutionality of his action and prepared an amendment to the Constitution designed to cover the case. This amendment he presented to the Cabinet for their consideration. They disapproved of it very strongly, so he prepared another. This too being coldly received by his Cabinet, Jefferson destroyed it and ever afterward maintained a discreet silence on the constitutionality of the Louisiana Purchase. That he believed he had exceeded his authority under the Constitution seems certain, and he apparently soothed his conscience only on the ground of the extreme urgency of the occasion and the great good that must result to the United States from the possession of this territory.

After a long and spirited debate the treaty was at last ratified October 20th 1803, and a bill providing for the creation of a provisional government became a law October 31st. As soon as the treaty had been ratified and provision made for a form of government in the new territory as soon as it should become a part of the United States, preparations were begun to take possession of the new country.

In the meantime Spain had protested warmly against Napoleon's disregard of the obligation never to alienate the province. Finding her protests disregarded however Spain apparently decided that she might as well yield with as good grace as possible and sent the Marquis of Casa Calvo to aid the governo, Salcedo, in turning the province over to Lausset. the French Prefect.