The expert wood finisher; a complete manual of the art and practice of finishing woods by staining, filling, varnishing, waxing, etc

Front matter

THE EXPERT WO#D FINISHER

A.ASHMUN KELLY

THE EXPERT SERIES

Chapter II How To Finish Hard And Soft Woods

List of Soft, Medium Hard, and Hard Woods — How to Fill the Open-Grain Woods — Filling with Paste Filler — How to Make Paste Fillers — Commercial Filler Formulas — Paste Fillers — ■ Barytes Filler — A Best Hardwood Filler — Light Paste Filler — Car Painters' Filler

— Cornstarch Filler — Fillers for Unusual Jobs — Marble Dust or Plaster Filler — Wax Hardwood Filler — Filler for Very Open-Pore Wood — Glue Paste Filler

— Non-Shrinkable Paste Filler — Lime and Flour Filler — Compound Paste Filler — Silica Filler — Adding Color to Filler — Table of Colors Used in Paste Fillers: Light Oak — Dark Oak — Golden Oak — Walnut — Mahogany — Redwood — Brazil Wood — Cherry — Fillers for Various Woods: Ash — Butternut — Beech — Birch — Cherry — Cypress — Chestnut

— Elm — Ebony — Maple — Mahogany — Oak — Rosewood — Red Gum — Sycamore — Redwood — Walnut

— White Pine — Some Notes on Fillers and Filling : Sandpaper and Its Using — Filling Woods with Liquid Filler — Liquid Filler Formulas — Silica Filler — China Clay Filler — Transparent Liquid Filler — Imitation Shellac Filler or Surfacer — Oil-Thinned Filler — Surfacing or Priming Work — How to Fill and Finish the Woods : Ash — Butternut — Beech — Birch — Cherry — Cypress

— Chestnut — Elm — Ebony — Maple — Mahogany — Oak — Fuming Oak — Imitation Fuming — Rosewood

— Redwood — Red Gum — Sycamore — Walnut — White Pine — Yellow Pine — Georgia Pine — Whitewood — 'Finishing Fireproofed Wood-Staining and Finishing House Trim — Imitation of Hard Woods — How to Print on Woods to Imitate Oaks — Finishes in Favor

— The Grays in Oak — Wood Stains and Their Use — Stain Formulas for Hard and Soft Woods — To Match Brown Oak — Weathered Oak — Bog Oak — Mission Oak — Flemish Oak — Light and Dark Oak — Golden Oak — Antwerp Oak — Gray Oak — Dark Oak Stains — Antique Oak — Various Stains for Various Woods : Brown Stains — Black Stains — Black Stains for New Furniture — Black or Ebony Stains — Red Ebony Stain

— Lignum Vitse — Best Woods for Ebonizing — Common Black Staining — Polish for Ebony Wood — Walnut Stains — Cherry Stains — Red Stains — Blue Stains — Green Stains — Green Stain for Oak — Yellow Stains — Gray Stain — Rosewood Stain 13-84

Chapter III Piano Finishing

Directions for Preparing Piano Cases and Finishing Same — How to Finish an Antique Piano Case — Finishing an Antique Oak Case — Another Piano Finishing Process — Finishing a Rosewood Case — Mechanical Varnishing — How to Prevent Cracking of Varnish on Cases — Troubles with Shellac Finish 85-91

Chapter IV French Polishing

Description of the Process — Various Polish Formulas : Polish for Turners' Work — Polish to Stand Water — Ebony Polish — Polish for Fine Cabinet Work — Polish for Dark WiOods — Polish for Carved Work — Polishing Walnut — Varnish Polish — Polish for Hard Wood — Polish for Papier Mache — White Polish for Light Woods — Useful Polish for Dark Furniture — Piano Polishes 92-99

Chapter V The Acid Method

Full Description of the German Acid Method for Finishing Furniture 100-103

Chapter VI How To Finish Veneered Work

Veneers Described — ■ Why Veneers Grain Out — Polishing Veneered Work — Protecting Inlay and Marquetry Work While Finishing — Water-Proof Polish for Veneer Work

— Varnish Stains: Walnut Varnish Stain — Oak Varnish Stain — Cherry Varnish Stain — Ebony Varnish Stain — Satinwood Varnish Stain 103-108

Chapter VII Staining Wickerware And Willow Furniture

Mordanting — Brown Stain — Blue Stain — Yellow Stain — Green Stain — Staining Old Wickerware — Gray Stain

— The Aniline Stains — Staining Willow Furniture — Table Showing the Equivalents of Water Colors with Aniline Dyes 109-113

Chapter VIII Finishing New Furniture

The Three Forms of Furniture Finishing — How to Prepare and Fill the Wood — How to Rub the Filling — Varnishing — Polishing — Doing Cheap Grade Furniture — The Various Varnishes Used 114-119

Chapter IX Making Antique Furniture

How Oak and Mahogany are Treated to Give Them the Appearance of Old Age — Full Description .... 120-121

Chapter X Re-finishing Old Furniture

How to Do Up Old Furniture — Preparing the Surface — Repairing Parts — Enameled Furniture — Re-Polishing — Coloring Up — Furniture Polishes — Furniture Cream — French Re- Polisher — Furniture Revivers — French Polish Reviver — Derby Cream — Furniture Renovating Polish — Furniture Polishers and Revivers — Twenty Formulas 122-132

Chapter XI How To Treat Stains, White Spots, Etc., On

FURNITURE

White Spots — Varnish Bloom — Dull Appearance — Stains

— Finger Marks on Piano — Greasy Appearance After Polishing — Bruises on Furniture — Fine Cracks on Mahogany — Restoring Color to Old Mahogany — Specks on Rosewood Piano — Pitting of Varnish on Piano — Discolored Woods — To Remove Aniline Stain from Hands

— Cleaning Dirty Worn Surface — Bleaches for Stains

— Sticky Pews — Removing Ink Spots — Rust Stains — Stains on Wood — Dirty Hardwood Finish — Bleaching Stains — White Marks on Wax Finish — How to Protect Wax Finish from Water 133-139

Chapter XII Removing Varnish From Old Work

Removal by Alcohol — Alkali Removers — Fusel Oil Remover

— Banana Liquid — Commercial Removers — Formulas — Carbolic Acid Removers — Notes on Varnish Removers and Their Using 140-145

Chapter XIII Violin Varnishing

How to Prepare, Stain and Varnish Old and New Violins — Doing Up Cheap and Costly Violins 146-147

Chapter XIV Preparing And Using Flatting And Other Varnishes

How to Make Flatting Varnish — How to Apply — Varnish and Its Application — Practical Points on Varnishing — Number of Coats to Apply — Varnish to Resist Heat — Characteristics of Good Varnish — 'Aged vs. New Varnish — Effects of Temperature — The Making of Varnish

— Short Oil and Long Oil Varnish — Some Varnish Notes — Varnish Troubles — Supplementary Notes — Uncorking Varnish Before Using — Temperature of Work and Stock Room — Varnish Cracking . . . 148-165

Chapter XV Finishing Hardwood Floors

Various Floors Described and How to Finish — Finishing a Hard Pine Floor — Polishing Hardwood Floor — Floor Wax Formulas — Pointers on Floor Waxing — Crack Fillers and Floor Putties — Georgia Pine Floor — Shellaced Floor — Dancing Floor — Bath Room Floor — How to Prepare Floor Oil — Putties and Cements for Hard Wood Floors — Floor Varnish Formula — Treating Old or Soiled Floors — Cleaning Natural Wood Floor — Coal Oil Stains — Worn Maple Floor — Soiled Wax Floor — How to Keep Waxed Floor in Good Condition — Renovating Old Floor — Discoloration from

Soap, Alkali, etc. — Bleaching Old Oiled Floor — Re- Varnish a Floor — Renovated Floors Need Cleaning Off — But Will Lack in Durability — Touching-U'p Old Varnished Floor — Caring for the Floor — borne Floor Notes 166-189

Chapter XVI Sap And Seasoning

Reason Why Oaks of One Kind May Act Differently in the Finishing — Influence of Tannic Acid — Action of Sap on the Finish — How to Remove the Sap — Staining the Ends of the Boards — Shop Economics .... 190-193

Chapter XVII Staining Before Using

A New-Old Method of Staining Wood in the Tree — Staining Woods by Injection of Stain Under Pressure — Interesting Theories and Experiments, Practical and Otherwise 194-196

Chapter XVIII General Information

Liquid Glue Filler — Waterglass Liquid Filler — Finishing a Table Top to Withstand Heat — Adding Perfume to Reviver — Hard Varnish for Table Top — Solubility of Varnish Gums — Covering Capacity of Varnishes — Oak in the Natural Finish — Finishing Exterior of Hardwood Doors — Matching Parts of Old Work — Matching a Dark Oak — Bleaching Wood — Finishing a Bowling Alley Floor — Finishing Laboratory Table Top — Wax Stained for Colored Woods — Chamois Skin — The Sponge — Pinholing — Tacky Varnish — Testing Varnish — Testing Turpentine — China Wood Oil, with Formulas — Brush Preservation — Descriptive List of Supplies Used in Finishing Room 197-215

Chapter XIX Shellac Varnish

How Lac is Obtained — The Different Grades of Lac Described — Chemical Composition — Adulteration — Tests — ■ White or Bleached Shellac, How Made — How Refined — Orange Shellac — Action of Grain and Wood Alcohol — Preparing Shellac Varnish — Artificial Shellac —

How Made — Water Shellac, Alkali Emulsion — Clear Alcoholic Solution Shellac — Some Notes on Shellac 216-232

Chapter XX Glossary

Description of Terms Used, Liquids, Solids — Chemicals, Dyes, Pigments, Anilines, etc 232-249

Preface To The Second Edition

In a little over two years the Expert Wood Finisher has run through its first edition, which was made large in anticipation of a large demand. Usually, technical books have a rather slow and limited sale, this being particularly true of works issued in the interests of painters, etc., but the Expert Wood Finisher has proved a notable exception to the rule. While the fact of its large and ready sale has primarily been due to its practical character, yet the author would feel derelict if he failed to mention the many very flattering press notices that the book elicited. Such notices did much to bring the book into more general notice, and to assist in its sale. Then there were the many book catalogs which listed it, due to which were many sales. Pratt Institute listed it in their catalog under the head of " books worth while," and the Director of the Library connected with that noble institution for helping men spoke very favorably of it. Sales were also made through the agency of many book concerns throughout the United States and Canada, A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, and Taylor & Baker Co., of New York, keeping it in stock. Henry Bosch Co., Chicago and New York, buy it in quantities and are among its heaviest sellers, mainly among painters. The book is also advertised in the trade journals going to publishers and book sellers, and many public libraries of the country, from coast to coast, and including Canada, have bought it. Several trades journals also have sold many copies of the book.

And now a second edition is called for. This will be a new edition, not simply a re-print. The entire book

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

has been re-written, or re-arranged, and many valuable additions have been made to it, with the elimination of some matter, deemed necessary in order to put the work right up to date. In its new form the book is even more useful than the first edition. Those who have the first edition will find it worth while to buy the second.

A. Ashmun Kelly.

Chapter I Description Of Woods Used In Wood Finishing

OAK. — Only the use of their scientific names can prevent confusion when speaking of the oaks. Foresters divide all the various oaks into two distinct groups, namely, the white and the black. The woods of the two groups are structurally different. The true white oak, Quercus alba, is merely one of the species which make up the white oak group. Red oak has a number of other common names, such as mountain oak, black oak, and Spanish oak, yet it is a member of the black oak group. Red oak is more abundant than white oak, grows faster, and is generally regarded as inferior; the two species often grow together and occupy the same general region. When white oak was abundant it was derived almost entirely from the true white oak, the Quercus alba, but now what passes for white oak is usually a mixture of different oaks, in which there may be no true white oak at all. The true white oak combines approximately the utmost strength and toughness of any of the timber oaks, excepting possibly the Southern live' oak, prized for ship building. At one time white oak forests extended from the Atlantic seaboard to about Missouri, and seemed in inexhaustible supply.

Of the white oak group those most used, in addition to the true white oak, are burr oak, chestnut oak, post oak, chinquapin oak, swamp white oak, cow oak, and overcup oak. Of the black oak group the most used are, Texas red oak, red oak, and spotted or water oak. Real white oak of No. i quality is very largely cut into quarter-sawed boards, while a combination of one or more white oaks and red oak may constitute cuts of " white oak." In many markets the term " cabinet white oak " is understood to include a mixture of red and white oaks, but not infrequently it means simply red oak. However, for all the purposes for which white oak is commonly used, practically all the trees of this group will yield woods that can be interchanged and will serve equally well.

Live oak is not used in wood finishing, yet it is well adapted for that purpose, being very hard and compact, close of grain, taking a high polish, and growing darker and handsomer with time. But the woodworker will find it very difficult to work. It seems never to have been sawed into quarters, though owing to its known grain it is sure that no figure would result from quarter-sawing. Nor is it ever made up into boards, its sole use being for ships. Its botanical name is Quercus zrirens, so named because it retains its green leaves until the new foliage of the next season appears. Its habitat is the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, from Norfolk to Texas.

What is known as quartered oak is said to have originated in Indiana, about 1871 or 1872, but the beautiful markings shown have been familiar for many years, and always admired. Probably they have been known in our country since the time of the earliest settlers who, in cutting oaks for fences and clapboards and other building lumber, split the wood in such a manner as to reveal these beautiful flakes and hearts to the best advantage; many old-time houses still show, in their well-worn stairs, the quartered effect. In modern practice the oak log is first sawed through, in regular order, when it is desired to get simply the straight grain effect; and to get the quartered effect the log is sawn so as to produce four quarters, these in turn being sawed at right angles with their V shape; this process involves great loss of wood which, however, can still be utilized in other ways.

Mahogany. — While many woods are known as mahogany, yet but one is justly entitled to the name, that one being the wood of the species called Swietenia Mahogani, order of Meliaceae. Probably no other order of trees yields such a variety of valuable wood, and of which the true mahogany is the most important. The term white mahogany is sometimes heard, but such is not a true mahogany, for the color of true mahogany, red, is a distinguishing feature of that wood. It is, rather, a rich red-brown, a color that may be made by mixing together eighty-five parts of black with fifteen parts of yellow or orange chrome. Or by this formula: Black, eighty-three parts ; red, four parts ; and orange yellow, thirteen parts. This reddish-brown color of true mahogany is not dull, but lustrous, in some instances reaching the degree known as " fire." Cape mahogany shows much of this fire or phosphorescent luster.

Baywood is a name used to describe mahogany, some believing it is simply a substitute for true mahogany, whereas, it is a name once given to true mahogany because of the place of its growth, the Bay Islands, of Honduras. Even now true mahogany wood is spoken of as baywood. The mahogany from Central America used to be called baywood, whilst that from the West Indies was called Spanish mahogany. It is likely that much of the mahogany used now is really Spanish cedar. It is stated by an authority that fifty different woods are sold under the name of mahogany ; twenty-five under the name of cedar; and more than a dozen each under the names of rosewood, satinwood and boxwood.

Touching the physical characteristics of mahogany, it is cold to the touch, it is a heavy wood, being very hard and close grained; it is durable, and seldom warps, cracks, or shrinks under trying conditions, if well seasoned. It stands all climates and is very lasting under water, if kept constantly wet. It is mostly all heartwood, with usually only a thin rind of sap wood. The cabinet maker finds it a very difficult wood to work, owing to its irregular grain, and this feature of the wood proves troublesome to the wood finisher as well. True baywood, the name given to a wood resembling true mahogany, as well as to the real mahogany itself, is a scarce wood now, but was a very poor substitute for mahogany, because it was very soft and light and possessed none of the fine markings that mahogany has, its grain being straight. Yet as it had some of the color of mahogany and took stain well, it was useful for making a substitute mahogany.

Circassian mahogany comes from the tree Juglans Regia, which grows on the southern side of the Caucasus mountains. The wood is of rare beauty both in color, figure, and contrasting veins in the dark tones with the delicate ivory surface of the body. These contrasting shades and figures are found in infinite variety. The beauty of this wood is doubtless the effect of certain peculiarities or defects of growth, the most beautiful wood being the most defective. Circassian mahogany wood is used mostly for veneers. But owing to the scarcity of this wood, particularly the choice burl parts, the veneers are usually made extremely thin, and when this occurs the finish is sure to be unsatisfactory, hence many people are prejudiced against it. It is particularly handsome for picture frames.

Maple. — This is one of our finest and most useful hard woods. The ancient Romans highly prized it for making pieces of furniture ; Pliny tells us that it could be had only in small pieces, that it was used for making writing desks, etc. The maple is of the genus Acer, all its species being confined to the north temperate zone, these species being eighty in number, only nine or ten being native in the United States. The woods of interest to the wood worker and finisher are the hard or rock maple, or sugar maple, the white or silver maple, and the birdseye maple, sometimes called the curly maple. There is an Oregon maple of great beauty when finished, it being light in color, with a surface covered with small waving lines, these showing beautifully at any time, but particularly in the glow of artificial light. Ordinary hard maple has little particular beauty as regards figure, but its color and fine hard grain make a very fine finish, and the wood is very useful in furniture making and for floors. The curly or birdseye maple is used solid and also in veneers. Its grain varies as the saw divides its eyes transversely or longitudinally, and pieces cut out in circular sweeps, such as chair backs, sometimes exhibit both the birdseye and the mottle at different parts. The occurrence of eyes, zones, spots, and small curls in this wood form figures of much beauty. The wood shows, in the finished work, the peculiar appearance of small dots or ridges, or of little conical projections, with a small hollow in the center, but without any resemblance of knots, the apparent cause of ornament in other woods of similar character, as the burrs of the yew and Russian maple, or birch. Formerly it was thought that these so-called eyes were the result of birds pecking at the bark, but Holtzappfel investigated the matter carefully and found that they were caused by little spines or points in the bark, the layers of wood being molded upon these points, and each of their fibers is abruptly curved at the respective places, and when cut through they give, in tangential slices, the appearance of projections, the same as some rose-engine patterns.

The white or silver maple also gives a very fine finish at the hands of the expert wood finisher. It is specially useful for stiles and rails of doors, surrounding birdseye panels, etc.

Red Gum. — This wood is sometimes called ""satin walnut," a lumber trade name, but it possesses beauty enough to entitle it to its true name. The tree is a very common one in the Southern States, growing to magnificent proportions in the best soils. Its heart shows a wide range of both color and figure; it is slightly darker than newly cut mahogany, and some parts of it are more elaborately figured than that wood. The color in general resembles that of mahogany. It is liable to warp and twist, but careful seasoning tends to reduce this to the minimum. Many costly buildings in the east and west are finished in this wood, and much is also used in furniture making. Finished natural, the wood yields a very pleasing effect, filler and varnish bringing out its handsome figure and color; or it may be stained variously. For the floor it looks best done natural. Being a very tough and good wearing wood it is well adapted for floors. If used for exterior siding it should be primed before being put up. It contains no acid sap, hence takes paint very well, and will not rust out nails. While its figure resembles mahogany somewhat, yet its color is more like that of cherry ; the grain of the wood is close, and it takes a very fine polish. Its red color takes on a purple cast, very rich and soft.

Birch. — This wood is close-grained, and is capable of taking a high polish. There are the sweet or black birch, the yellow or gray birch, the red birch, and the white or paper birch. The wood comes both straight and curly, the grain is fine and its texture close. Generally its grain runs straight, and while it is a heavy, hard wood, it is never tough or cross-grained. It is easily cleaned up and made ready for finishing. It is usually stained, but mahogany color does not look well on it; white birch usually is finished natural ; a dull finish is best for any birch.

The sapwood of yellow birch is yellowish, the heartwood light to dark reddish brown. It is the heartwood of birch that furnishes the beautiful red birch, which has no superior even in mahogany. Both sapwood and heartwood take a brilliant, satiny polish. The figure of curly birch is especially attractive, while the sparkling luster of the finished wood gives a richness of tone such as is usually looked for only in the costliest imported woods.

Fine as this wood is it has its disadvantages too. First, it is difficult to finish natural, on account of its lack of uniformity of color and marking; stained birch is apt to fade. On its behalf it may be said that it has the highest physics, or quality, of any American hardwood growing in reasonably large quantity, excepting that of the best types of oak. It has a strength and density far superior to gum, will hold its finish better, and when stained with any other than aniline stain will hold color as well as any wood. Briefly summed up, birch has density, weight, strength, good working qualities, and moderate cost. The woodworker will likely find fault with birch on account of the oil it contains, and which he says prevents proper gluing of joints. Excepting in the best grades of furniture he does not try to match the wood's figure very closely, so that in a glued-up job he can put the sap edges together and the heart edges together, which will insure a good glued joint. Then the finisher can stain the light parts to match the dark, and follow with a light coat of stain to make all harmonize. Or he may stain the filler too.

Beech. — The red variety of this wood is very handsome, and makes a very good imitation of cherry when stained. It has a fine grain and is a very durable wood. When quarter-sawed its beauty is further enhanced.

Like birch, it came into general use when other used hardwoods became scarce and dear. It has for years been used for making tool handles, etc.

Redwood. — This wood grows only in California, and there only in very restricted parts, the home of the famous big trees, of which there are two species, Sequoia Gigantica or big tree, and Semper Virens, or ever-living tree. We get our redwood from the latter tree, the wood from the former being valueless for building purposes. Redwood is very durable, but is a rather difficult wood to paint on, though it is not difficult to finish with stain and varnish. It contains a sap of a gummy nature, and this prevents the proper drying of paint or oil upon its surface. Hence oil stain is not the best for it. Yet it contains no pitch. It has a hard heart-growth, non-absorbent, with a soft body outside of that. It has a good color, so may be finished natural, making a very handsome finish too.

Cypress. — This is a Southern tree, the Taxodium Distichum of the scientist, its leaves, being narrow, placing it among the soft woods. Locally it is variously known as bald, black, white, red and deciduous cypress. It is not as abundant as the pines, and in its uses and appearance it is not unlike white cedar; a very durable wood. It has good color, is free from sap, has a straight grain, and is light and strong, and is extensively used in house trim. Exposed to the weather unpainted the wood becomes dark and unsightly, but when used inside, although it darkens in time, yet the darkening is rich, not unsightly. One of its objections is to quickly rise its grain under the influence of any dampness, making the surface rough ; hence it should be finished as soon as possible after being put in place.

Hard or Yellow Pine. — The pine is a member of a large family of useful trees, Coniferce. It is not difficult to tell a pine from a spruce, or fir, larch, cedar, etc., of the same family, and formerly included in the same genus, Pinus. The pine is easily distinguished by its evergreen, needle-like and short or long leaves, and its cones. Of the some seventy-six species known twenty-six are found in the United States, among which the most common are the white pine, now nearing extinction in our forests, the long-leaf, Southern yellow, or Georgia pine, the loblolly, the red pine. Then there is the Douglas pine of the Pacific coast, sometimes called the Oregon pine and Douglas spruce, a tree that grows to an immense height, as much as 300 feet in some cases, with a diameter of eight to fifteen feet. The long-leaved pine, called also Georgia pine, hard pine, yellow pine, and red pine, is one of the most important of the family in our country, for it gives a good building lumber and furnishes the rosin, turpentine, etc., of commerce, and as fuel makes a very hot flame ; it is often used also for railroad ties, though not so desirable for this purpose. It is a very hard, strong, compact yellow or reddish wood, and is highly resinous. There is also the heavy-wooded pine of the Rocky Mountain regions, the wood being strong, coarse-grained, yellowish, and heavy, and is used mostly for floor joists, flooring, and heavy carpenter work generally.

The long-leaved pine is called for distinction the Southern yellow pine. The name yellow pine is applicable to any of various species of Pinus, but especially of the common yellow pine found east of the Rocky Mountains, and which is also known as spruce, bull pine, and, in contrast with the Southern yellow pine, shortleaved pine. White pine is a term applied to any one of several species of Pinus having a white or whitish wood, and their leaves in clusters of five. The once common white pine (P. Str obits) of the northern United States and Canada has been the most valuable tree for building purposes in this country. There are still some kinds of white pine that serve to take its place, but in color, texture or grain it is not equal to the old white pine. But there is a vast quantity of it, however.

The Georgia pine has straight grain, while the North Carolina pine has a very beautiful variegated mottle.

Sycamore. — This is the American plane tree, but more commonly known as the sycamore, or buttonball. It is one of several trees constituting the genus Platanus. The tree differs so much in appearance from any other tree that it is one of the most easily recognized. Its wood is very dense, its markings beautiful, and it is further improved in this latter respect by quarter-sawing. It takes a handsome finish. Oregon sycamore resembles the birch of the Eastern states in its markings, having waving lines that run close together. It is a tough and strong wood, and well adapted for making veneers.

Ash. — There are several varieties of the ash, but the ash tree furnishing the most valuable timber of any is the white ash (Frasinus Americana) of the United States and Canada, a large forest tree, having a light, tough, elastic, hard, close-grained wood, and which is specially adapted for making agricultural implements, wagons, etc., no other wood serving as well the purposes mentioned.

The ash of the Eastern states has a close, even grain, while that of Oregon has peculiar figurings of concentric curves, taking a very fine polish. Ash is used now in connection with common oak, passing as oak when stained and finished as such. Although the grain of the two woods is entirely different, yet with filling and staining ash looks very like oak; often it is used for cheap furniture, selling under the name of oak, or used with oak in the same piece of furniture, to save the costlier oak in certain parts of the work. Hungarian ash has a beautiful burl, making fine panels and veneers. The English white ash is similar to the American and Canada white ash.