The principles and practice of land drainage: embracing a brief history of underdraining; a detailed examination of its operation and advantages: a description of various kinds of drains, with practical directions for their construction: the manufacture of drain-tile, etc

Front matter

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Preface

This treatise is presented to the public as a brief discussion of the most important considerations involved in Land Drainage. The writer has not aimed to produce an original work, but has endeavored to collate well ascertained facts, and present them in as brief a space as the nature of the subject would permit. The productions of the best writers on the subject in Great Britain, France and Germany, as well as the current agricultural publications of this country, whether serial or otherwise, have been consulted in the preparation of this volume ; while the numerous opportunities which presented themselves to the author, in fulfilling his duties in connection with the State Board of Agriculture, for observing the practical details of the work by visiting places where draining operations were conducted, tile manufactured, etc., have been cheerfully embraced, and the results embodied in the work.

It may not be improper to state that the work was undertaken at the earnest solicitation of the Committee on Agriculture of the Ohio Legislature, during the session of 1858-9. The engravings were ordered and the greater portion of them finished before the appearance of Judge French's excellent work on the same subject; it was then too late to abandon the project.

The work is respectfully submitted to the judgment of the farmers of the Great Northwest, in the hope that it may be found not altogether unuseful to them in their endeavors to improve their property.

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Contents

I N T R O D U C T O R Y.

Definition, - - - - • - . - History of Drainage among the Ancients, Drain Pipes used in France, A, D. 1620, - Drainage in England, - - - - - Drainage in France, --.--- Drainage in the United States, - . -

.1 4

Chapter II, How Drainage operates — How it affects Soils, CO

Chapter HI. Drainage removes Stagnant Waters from the

Surface, - - 72

Chapter IV". Drainage removes Surplus Water from under

the Surface, 98

V. Drainage lengthens the Working Season, - 112 VI. Drainage deepens the Soil, ... ]10

Chapter Chapter Chapter

V^Il. Drainage warms the Undersoil,

Vi CONTENTS.

Chapter VIII. Drainage equalizes the Temperature of the

Soil during the Season of Growth, - ■: 133

Chapter IX. Drainage carries down Soluble Substances to

the Roots of Plants, - - - - 134

Chapter X. Drainage prevents " Heaving out," " Freezing

out," or " Winter killing," - - - 144

Chapter XI. Drainage prevents injury from Drought, - 147

Chapter XII. Drainage improves the Quantity and Quality

of the Crops, 153

Chapter XIIl. Drainage increases the Effects of Manures, 165

Chapter XIV. Drainage prevents Rust in Wheat, and Rot

in Potatoes, 169

Chapter XV. Other Advantages of Draining, - - - 171 Chapter XVI. Will Drainage pay ? - - - - -173 Chapter XVII. What lands need Draining, . - . 177 Chapter XVIII. On the Absorbing Qualities of Soil, and Analysis of Drain Water, - - - - 187

CONTENTiJ.

Vll

Part Ii.— Practice Of Drainage

Chapter I. Practical Drainage, - - - - -217

Materials Jfor keeping Open the Watercourses, ------- 218

Plug, or Subsoil Draining, - - - - 226

Wedge, or Shoulder Drains, . - - 229

Mole Plow Draining, 231

Sheep Drains, - - , . - . 248

Chapter II. Size of Tile, 272

Caliber and Minimum Fall of Drain Pipe

Tile, 275

Discharge of Water through Pipes, - - 281 Chapter III. Depth of Drains, ------ 284

Chapter V. Manufacture of Tile, ----- 324 The Pug Mill, 339

The Roller Mill, 340

Tile Machines, 342

Pressing the Pipes, ----- 348

Drying Tile, 349

Rolling and Rimming Tile, - - - 354 Til© Burning, • • 3^

VllI COKTENTg.

Chapter V. Manufacture of Tile — Continued.

Tile Kilns, 356

Fuel, 359

Chapter X. Draining Tools, Instruments, etc., - - 387

Chapter XL Digging Underdrains, ----- 394 Chapter XIL Time to cut Drains and lay Tile, - - 410

Chapter XIIT. Obstructions in Drains, 414

Appendix — Laws of Ohio relating to Drainage, - - - - 425 Index, 433

LAND DEAINAGE.

INTRODUCTORY.

DEFINITION".

Drainage of land, or farm drainage, may be defined as being a process by which wet and unhealthy soils may bo rendered arable and healthy, as well as to remove excessive moisture in lands not generally considered too wet.

The word drainage^ when used in an isolated sense, means drying up, running off of stagnant water. It is also applied to a series of works which are undertaken in order to improve the sanitary condition of whole sectionn of country or a large city, to change the course of a river, and to protect its cultivated banks against floods. General drainage is that which constitutes a whole system of great Avorks stretching over entire valleys, and regulate all its running water ; agricultural drainage refers to fields only.

Drainage, as practiced at the present time, is an improvement, or a transformation of the old system for drying up moist soils by means of trenches or ditches, for the discharge of water, which was known and resorted to everywhere in former times.

It is, nevertheless, true, that the transition or change

from trenches or uncovered ditches filled with stones, to

the new mode of draining, was a slow process, which may

explain why many persons, when they learn of the *'new "

2 I drainage, will exclaim: "But this is not new, that was practiced by our fathers." These persons are right. But, as far as arts and science are concerned, all is becoming singularly perfect in our days, so that we do not always recognize the starting point. This was the case Avith the new system of drainage which conducts the excess of water from tillable lands through earthen pipes of moderate length, placed under ground at a depth of from three to four feet.

But how can the water be led off through such earthen pipes ? we often have been asked. In 1852, Mr. Daniol, a skillful agriculturist, at Clermont Ferrant, in France wrote to Mons. Barras, editor of an agricultural journal :

" New words used by scientific writers often cause embarrassment to their readers. When the Joiirnal of Practical Agriculture indicates drainage as a potent system of rendering wet lands arable ; when you praised the advantages which are obtained in England and Belgium, you excited my curiosity and highly engrossed my attention. But having discovered that drainage is the very thing we resort to from father to son, and which Ave name like Oliver de Serrks, subterranean passages, I experienced a sense of satisfaction and said to myself, is that all ? what next?

" Next, you indicate, for the purpose, earthen pipes as the most efficient and economic implement! I vainly endeavored to perceive how vs'ater in excess at the surface could penetrate into these pipes. Doubtless, thought I, if this water springs up at a single place and for want of exit spreads over the whole field, it is an easy matter to collect it through waterworks introduced into the pipes and let it run off at a lower spot. But otherwise, if you have several springs to contend with; if the excess of Avater after the normal saturation of the soil is produced by superabundant rains during several years, how, once more, will the numerous little sources penetrate and find their way through the surface of, and into the pipes ? 1 will suppose that the ends of the pipes are only contiguous, that at first cracks Avill admit Avater, but earth will, in course of time, fill up the joints; in both cases the Avork Aviil be expensive and useless.

DEFINITION. 3

Such doubts expressed by a very learned agriculturist, prove that much has yet to be said in order to convince our agriculturists of the utility of drainage, and to render its effects conspicuous to them. On the other hand, numberless questions are addressed to us about the manner of making pipes, the quality of clay, the kind of machines, baking or burning, cost, results to be expected, and so forth. The work for laying the drains does not appear, in general, difficult to comprehend and execute ; the numerous writings on the subject scattered through the agricultural and other journals, have enlightened the majority of cultivators. But many a point relating to the execution, remains unexplained ; we, therefore, have deemed it proper to go over the whole subject without neglecting that which practical men and publications have heretofore elucidated.

Notwithstanding the origin of drainage may often have been related, a sketch of its history and progress will not be out of place here. The importance of drainage is the sole point of the subject, which really should not require any further discussion ; it was prominently brought forward by Mr. Martinelli, of Nerac (France), at a county fair, in a few words, which we translate from the Journal of Practical Agriculture, viz :

" Look at this flower pot. What is the hole at the bottom for ? j ask you, because there is a complete agricultural revolution in that hole. It affords a renovation of water by a timely flow. And why mast water be renovated? Because it gives either life or death : lil'e, when it merely traverses a layer of earth which retains the fecundity with which water is pregnant, and beside dissolves nutriments conveyed to the plant; death, when it remains in the pot, because it will soon be corrupted, will cause the roots to become diseased and prevent admittance to new water."

The drainage of tillable land is a small hole at the bottom, just like that of the flower pot.

HISTORY OF DRAINAGE AMONG THE ANCIENTS.

The new system of drainage emphatically consists in tlie use of covered causeways ; we, therefore, will devote no space nor time to the discussion of open trenches as a means of removing superfluous water and rendering lands arable, subject to this condition. The idea of redeeming from waste and of making available for cultivation the surface occupied by gaping ditches, may be traced back to the earliest ages. The Romans were acquainted with a process of draining lands derived, doubtless, from antecedent civilization. Nevertheless, among agricultural writers, Columella is the first who speaks of underground causeways; he lived in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Cato, Varro, and Virgil, advocate open trenches only. Here is Columella's text;^

" When the soil is moist, ditches are to be dug out in order to dry it up and let the water run ofif. We know of two kinds of ditches : those which are hidden and those which are wide and open ; as to the hidden ditches, one will dig out trenches of three feet in depth, which shall be half filled with small pebbles or pure gravel, and then the whole will be covered with the earth which was taken out from the trench. Should there be neither stones nor gravel, then fascines formed of branches tied together, of the same shape and capacity of the trench, may be placed into it so as to fill up the cavity. When the fascines have been sunk into the bottom of the canal, they must be covered with leaves of cypress, pine, or any other tree, then shall be superadded the earth extracted from the trench, and the whole will strongly be compressed. At both ends must be placed in the form of a buttress (as it is done for small bridges), two large stones surmounted with a third one, in order to consolidate the sides of the ditch and favor the fall and exit of the water."

Palladius, who came long after Columella, thus describes the underground causeways : ^

" When the lands are wet, they will be dried up by digging trenches

1 Lib. II, cap. 2. 2 Lib. VI, cap. 3.

DRAINAGE AMONG THE ANCIENTS. O

everywhere. Every one knows how to make open trenches, but here is the way to make hidden trenches: One digs out across the field ditches of three feet in depth, which are to be half filled with small stones or gravel ; after which they are filled up with the eartli from the digging and leveled. But the ends of those causeways musi lead in declivity unto an open ditch whither the water will run with out carrying away the earth of the field. Should there be no stones, one will lay at the bottom of the ditch fascines, straw, or briars of any kind whatever,"

Thus, drainage, by means of underground causeways through which the flow of water is secured by means of permeable materials, like stones or branches, is an invention that no modern has any right to claim ; though drainage, such as described by Columella and Palladius, has long been used at numerous places in France. England endeavored to ascribe to Captain Walter Bligh the invention of deep trenches. Walter Bligh's only merit is the reproduction of the precepts applied before him, and perfectly elucidated by the elder French writer on agriculture, Oliver de Serres.

Even in Columella's time, the importance was fully appreciated of making the drains with sloping sides and narrow bottom. From this forward there was a slight step only to actual and thorough drainage. There is abundant evidence to prove that the ancient Romans used clay pipe as conduits for water everywhere where they established themselves ; that even in lower Austria, Saxony, and other countries, a similar system of conduit by clay pipes obtained, evidence of which is yet to be found in some of the cultivated fields ; there appears to be presumptive evidence, at least, that drainage by clay pipes or tiles was a Roman invention.

UNDERGROUND CAUSEWAYS AMONG THE GREEKS.

We said that the Romans were acquainted with a mode of draining lands through trenches covered and filled with stone. We did not derive the origin of it from more ancient civilization, because we do not consider the subterranean canals built by the Greeks to remove enormous reservoirs of water, which might have caused extensive floods, as mere agricultural drains. M. Jaubert de Passa, in his Researches on Irrigation among Ancient Nations,^ speaks thus :

" Was the mysterious outlet of the lake Stymphahde toward the coast of Argos '^ the work of man or caprice of nature ? Jt is kn(>wn that the water of the lake did run into two abysses situated at the extremity of the valley; when these openings were obstructed, the water covered a space of over 400 stadii, or about thirty miles. The river Stymphale, which the inhabitants of Argolida named Erasiiius, was not the only one of which the course was partly under ground. The Alpheus, after having several times disappeared from the earth's surface, plunged into the sea, according to traditions,^ in order to go into Sicily, Avhere it mingled its water with the spring of Arethusa. The plain of Orchomenes became marshy as soon as the subterranean ducts regular outlet of the water from Mount Trachys, failed to be cleansed. The plain of Caphyes was sometimes overflown by the water of the Orchomenes. As a permanent protection for the country and the city, the magistrates of Caphyes caused the establishment of a causeway along the flowing canal, behind which water from various sources formed the river below.*

''The plain of Phenea, next to the others, remained for a long time overflown. At a remote, but unknown epoch, an eai'thquake, accordino- to some, a beneficent prince, according to others, opened two abysses or zerethra, -which let out the water and made the land healthy;^ finally, the valley of Artemisium, situate near Mantinea, and named Argos^ on account of its sterility, became marshy as

1 Vol. IV, p. 36. 3 Pausanias VIII, 44, 54.

ZStrabo VI, cap. 3 ? 9, and VIII, cap. 9 g4. 4 Pausanias VIII, p. 23. ^> Pausanias, VIII, p. 14, 19.

UNDERGROUND CAUSEWAYS. 7

often as water obstructed the gulf which was its outlet. This subterranean duct extended as far as Genethlium, a city built at the head of the lake Dine." ^

Certainly, these immense underground works of the Greeks must have had the drainage of extensive districts for their object, but they were undertaken as a public h^^giene, and not to enhance the fertility of arable lands. Agricultural drainage has this last as its special object; but this can not always be attained without some general work for the drainage of a whole valley.

We read, in Walter Bligh's book, third edition, printed in 1652:2

" As to the drain trench, thou wilt make it deep enough so that it may reach at the bottom cold, oozing, stagnant water. Say one yard, or four feet, if thou wishest for satisfactory drain. And furthermore, having come to the layer whereat rests the oozing spring, sink further down about the depth of an iron shovel, no matter how deep thou art already, if thou wilt drain thy land throughout. . . . But as to ordinary trenches, which are often dug out one or two feet, I say that it is madness and lost work, and 1 will spare the reader wherewithal."

These injunctions certainly are pertinent, and may serve as a guide even at this day; but one ought not to conclude from them, as some modern writers did, that, as no French agricultural author treated the subject as a specialty, and with sufficient details, all the merit of the introduction of open trenches belongs to England. Oliver de Serres, who lived before Walter Bligh, and whose Theatre of Agriculture was printed in 1600, gives a very complete description of the underground causeways, strongly recommending the use of them. Not only does he consider the single trench, as did Columella, but

1 Pausanias VIII, p. 7, 20, 21, 25.

2 '< The English Improver Improved, or the Survey of Husbandry Surveyed."

he goes further; he treats of many together, he is careful to describe the main ditch as also covered, and every precaution to be taken in order to secure effective drains. As, Oliver de Serres was altogether neglected in the history of drainage, and his well-defined ideas having been attributed to divers authors, we will give, m extenso, a passage from the book of this great French writer on agriculture : ^

" To discharge noxious water, the usual way is to open ditches, especially through plains and low places, these ditches becoming inelosures for the land. Let the land then be dug around and give the ditches proper width and depth, to fulfill both objects. They must be cleansed every second year, some time previous to sowing lands, on which shall be cast this detritus from the trenches, to be used as so much manure. But, should it happen that the field be full of springs, or underground oozing sources, external ditches are no longer sufficient ; then will be required another and more peculiar remedy as will be shown, in order to rid inner land of this incommodiousness. Inasmuch as the evil of too much water exceeds in destructiveness, both that of shadow and of stones, to mend the former will require greater labor than to correct the latter ; of this, finally, the profit as a recompense, comes out greater than from any other reparation that can be given to the land, so fruitful is that which relieves it from water; because thereby not only are wet lands improved, but pools and swamps are converted into exquisite plow fields.

"The examples serve us as good masters to do good husbandry. Where is the farmer beholding the beautiful wheat raised on drained swamps, that does not desire, in emulation, to imitate such profitable husbandry ? The cause of this comes from a superabundance of water, which prevented land from being worked for several years; at the end of which, finding itself reposed, and thereby to have acquired fertility, returns it admirably and with profit. And how much more hope you will have from this, which by the ancient subjection to the springs, was never able to produce, which you will find pregnant with fertility ! Beside the income, there is no doubt that from noxious water spread here and there, on your land, when collected

1 Theatre d'AgriciiIture, Second Lieu. t. 1, p. 97.

UNDERGROUND CAUSEWAYS. 9

in one place, you could make a fountain spring according to places, so great and with such abundance of water, that it will suffice for the irrigation of meadows, which you will make on account of that, below the drained pieces, and indeed for erecting mills there, should the ground and other circumstances requisite be favorable.

" The ground you desire to drain must have a declivity, either small or great, without which the water could not run off. This being presupposed, a large ditch must be dug from one end to the other, always beginning at the lowest spot; into that trench many others, but smaller, may be joined on both sides, in order to discharge the water flowing from all parts of the ground. By this means, each supplj'^ing its portion, the large ditch collecting, the whole will be discharged. The large trench is, on that account, called mother trench^ and the whole together, ^hens paii\' from the figure of that animal's foot, whose claws stretch in toward its trunk. The extent and surface of the land give form to the ditches, because it is fit to make them longer and wider in proportion as your land is extensive and flat, which jj^ou drain ; and on the other hand, they are required shorter and narrower, if it be small and sloping ; because, within a narrow compass, generally, not so much water is collected as in a large one, and as much, nay, more of it will pour out of a narrow ditch with great declivity than a wide, gently sloping trench. About the depth of the ditches, it is not thi(s,fo7% in whatever part you dig. you, must go about four feet deep, in order to cut off the source of the springs, which is the special aim of this business. According to the nature of the place, must the trenches be disposed.

"Should there be a low vale, with high ground on both sides, the mother must be dug in the middle and lower spot, lengthwise, as already said, into which must fall the other ditches from both sides. Uut having to drain only one hillside, in that quarter there will be some small ditches running into the mother trench, and disposed as will seem fit for the best of the work and premises ; as also the length of all trenches is subordinate to the plan which dictates the order of them, according to the surface and site. Having the plan, reasonable fall and extent, a proper width will also be required for the small ditches ; the latter should be three feet, and the mother five feet deep ; by means of this guide, your intention will be fulfilled. And to avoid any mistake, let there be as many ditches, so long, so wide, without fear of excess on this score, that no source of spring, or small fountaiD, be overlooked, in order to drain your land well, by the general gathering of its waters.

" Those ditches^ large or small, must he half filed with minute stonesM and the other half with the earth previously dug out and leveled at the top, so that no trace of it even will appear, for the commodiousness of tillage, which should be executed very well, the plow finding depth enough of earth before reaching the stones, through which water will freely pass and flow out at the spot designed for it, leaving the surface land free of all noxious moisture and fit to bring forth all kinds of cereals.

"A similar work must be applied to all estates, vineyards, meadows, orchards, and others which produce no fruit on account of too much moisture. If you have on the spot none but large, flat stones for supplying your trenches, before using them you must break them to suit this kind of service, and they should be placed into the ditch straight (upright) and not flat, , fixing them beside so skillfully that they will not be too tight to prevent the flow of water. To have this business well done, begin right, that is, artistically and with order; through ease and without confusion you will succeed very well. It will be easy to draw all your ditches, by cautiously observiivg the places through which they are to pass; then you begin to dig them out at the lowest spots, casting the earth all on one side of the trench, leaving the other side free, to bring thither easily the stones, which must be thrown in immediately, for fear that, by delaying, the trench might cave in by effect of the wind, trampling of beasts, or any other accident.

" Thus your undertaking shall be completed at one end, as soon as commenced, in prosecuting it until you reach the highest spot of the field. In the meanwhile the water will take its course as soon as the upening of its way has been performed, which could not take place, bhould you begin the work at the highest spot, for want of issue allowed to water; even this Avould disturb the digging by discharging into it. You will mind, also, that the issues of water be well managed, that they do not choke up afterward, because for want of issue water might retrograde and render your labor useless. This Avill be obviated by stones and mortar, put up by a master hand, so as to last long, especially at the spot where the main or mother trench lets out the water. You are finally advised that the extremities and ends of 3'our small ditches, at their highest parts, need not to be as wide as in low places, not being compelled to collect there so much water as below; this, nevertheless, remains at your discretion, because they

UNDERGROUND CAUSEWAYS. 11

can not be too wide in any place in order to receive not only water springing from the bottom, but also that from the rain above, which shall not be overlooked.

" This work produces several advantages, since at the same time an excess of water and stones are removed from the ground, and that water is made serviceable for meadows, mills, even for fountains, the qualities of it being considered, for which usefulness it is rendered commendable ; also, that improvement ought to be prosecuted by all husbandmen. Beside, nothing is lost in that performance ; because the trenches being filled up to their superficies, all the land is exposed and fit for tillage, even to an inch; that can not be said when trenches are left open, which occupy much ground, and, in contradistinction to the others, are liable to need repairs from time to time.

" Should stone for replenishing ditches fail on the spot, do not have them brought from afar, at great expense, but instead use straw, which you may employ in this wise :

" The rye straw, on account of its strength, can be used, and this failing, replace it with wheat straw. You icill make with it a floor in the ditch, in order, being suspended, to cause an empty space below for the passage of the water, and above this flx)or you will put two feet <f earth. The empty space should be one foot high, the thickness of the floor another foot, and the two of earth will make four feet depth of the ditch. These ditches must be only two feet and a half wide, narrower by six inches than others, for the subjection of straAV, for fear of choking up the empty space below, by caving in on account of its weight the earth put on the top. The mother trench, recipient of water, must not be wider than the others, considering the difiiculties of the straw; but this may be overcome by using two mother trenches, or only one so deep that it will suffice to collect all the water directed to it. The straw ought to be arranged into bundles one foot thick and two and a half long, tied up even at three equidistant places.

" In order to lay these bundles as they ought be, you will make the ditch narroAver at the bottom than at the top, not in declivity or slope, but perpendicular, contracting unto square at the place whereon the floor is to be laid, to rest firm and secure as upon walls. The contraction at each side must be six inches ; thus the lowest place of the ditch will be one foot and a half, and two and six inches at the widest part, which is the top. Should you suspect your ditches and drains of being too small, the remedy is not to widen them, considerin-' the difficulties of the straAv, but it consists in their number; for,

12 LAND DRAINAGE. Jj^l

as already said, you can not have too many of them, and you never will remove too much water from a swamp or marshy ground. Thus you must be careful to dig a sufficient number of them and so well disposed, that they may discharge the ones upon the others by I branches connecting them, in order to conduct all the water of tho field into the mother trench and empty it at the proper place.

" Straw, thus employed, will last a long time ; for it is admitted that, being inclosed within the earth and without the eCFects of air, straw remains sound over a hundred years. I am a witness that some sound straw was found entire in the midst of an old, ruined house, and the wall appeared to be the work of former ages. Therefore, use it without scruple, with the understanding that if it should rot at the end of a hundred years, those who will come then, may change H if they have a mind to."