Dairy farming

Contents

CHAP. PAGE

Introduction, Dairying, the Industry of Immediate Cash Eeturns . . . . . . 7

I. Who May Succeed in Dairying ! 12

Introduction

DAIRYING, THE INDUSTRY OF IMMEDIATE CASH RETURNS

A cow's breath has been said to be the sweetest of all known things, and while such an abstract quantity cannot be compared with more concrete substances for relative sweetness, we must grant that in many ways the dairy cow is a remarkable and wonderful creature. Not only is this true, so far as we are able to measure her value in dollars and cents, but also her unique position as the foster mother of the human race is a position for which no other animal has yet been able to successfully compete. On the stock exchanges and in the great markets, we so constantly hear wheat and grains discussed that the uninitiated in agricultural matters are likely to form the opinion that grain farming is the chief source of agricultural wealth in the United States and the world.

It is not our purpose to emphasize one branch of agriculture at the expense of any other, but rather to advise beginners and those unacquainted with the various types of agriculture in order that they may wisely select the most remunerative branch. It has been said that the cow, the hog and the hen constitute the foundation of our national agricultural wealth. The dairy cow is rightly placed at the head of the trio ; she gives approximately six hundred crops of milk a year, a product for which in its various forms there is an unlimited outlet.

The average man, woman and child in the United States consumes over seven-tenths of a pint of milk per day or its equivalent in the form of cream. Add to this the butter, cheese, condensed milk and sundry dairy products and you have a conception of the market open to the dairyman and of the possibilities for engaging in and developing special branches of the dairy industry.

Milk dealers of New York City are obliged to go as far as two hundred miles into the country to purchase sufficient milk to supply their trade, and cream is shipped as far as seven hundred miles into that metropolis. What is true of New York is, in a smaller way, true of all large cities.

In fact the situation is becoming one of transportation rather than of production, since dairymen living within a short distance of cities have long ago lost hope of being able to compete with the demand.

The Markets Are Consistently Good

In a similar wav, creameries and cheese factories are unable to supply the demand for the manufactured products, butter and cheese.

Therefore thousands of pounds of butter and cheese must be placed in storage every year in the height of the season of best production in order that the public need not go butter or cheese hungry during the fall and winter months, when the factories are totally unable to meet the demand, owing to the small production of milk on the average farm during the winter months.

The consistently high prices of milk, butter and kindred dairy products testify to the continuous and never glutted market for milk and its products. The markets are furthermore near at hand and of a cash or monthly payment nature. Instead, as in the case of grains, of one crop a year dependent on the climate and the weather, the dairy cow yields her milk twice a day for three hundred or more days out of the year.

Throughout the length and breadth of the civilized world, a quart of fresh milk is practically legal tender and with almost as constant a value as gold. From any railroad station in the country, ship a ten-gallon can of rich cream to almost any one of our six thousand creameries, and a check for five dollars or more will be forthcoming in a few days, accompanied by a request for further shipments.

The Hand Separatoe Plays an Important

Role

The general introduction of the small centrifugal cream separator for farm use has made possible a great development of dairying, for instead of shipping the bulky milk either by wagon or rail, the farmer is now able to reduce its volume about seven times and ship the cream, the most valuable part, to whatever market he may choose and retain the skim-milk on the farm for feeding purposes. Again, the rapid growth of the ice-cream industry offers a wide and favorable market for the dairyman who is in a position to produce pure sweet cream.

While the problems of production of farm products are now fairly well solved as a result of the labors of the state and federal scientists, profitable marketing of farm products has not yet been thoroughly worked out in a practical way — with the exception of the dairy industry. In this case, the market is practically constant and usually satisfactory. This advantage makes dairying the main prop of the renter of small means, the city man about to move to a farm and the farmer who requires a steady cash income throughout the year.

Chapter I Who May Succeed In Dairying?

Before investing capital or labor in any line of business, to which dairying is no exception, the prospective investor of course considers first the probable chances for success and the dividends which he may reasonably expect to secure on his investment. The question therefore " Who May Succeed In Dairying ? " is vital.

Success is here considered in a financial way rather than in its more delicate ethical sense. Those who are best able to succeed in dairying should possess a general knowledge of all farm operations. In addition to this they must be familiar with the feeding and management of a dairy herd, even though help is hired to perform the actual work. They must have sufficient business ability to make the necessary purchases to the best advantage and to select the most profitable markets. They must be receptive of up-todate methods, the demands of the trade, and the importance of a uniformly high quality of product.

They must have a reasonable amount of capital, land and equipment. They must understand and appreciate the importance of sanitation and be able to discriminate between the essential and the non-essential in operations bearing on sanitation. They should have a deep human interest in their work and, aside from a financial aspect, should take personal interest in every animal in the herd. The successful dairyman soon develops an affection for his well-groomed and soft-eyed cows.

Business Ability is Essential While the wise selection of the farm, of stock and of hired help are important determining factors in success, the man who is a lover of animals has much in his favor. Any good business man or a student of the world may succeed in dairying, but a knowledge of the principles of animal breeding, and an understanding of the " why " of the various operations as well as the " how " are of inestimable benefit in reducing the number of errors in case one is a beginner.

On every dairy farm there are also a great many seemingly non-essential details which should be mastered before one actually engages in the business. Among such details may be mentioned the construction and repair of fences, best types of stalls, use of fly repellents in summer and care and handling of ugly bulls. While these subjects will be subsequently discussed as fully as possible, any one unfamiliar with dairy farm details and about to engage in dairying, can wisely afford to hire out for a few months even at very low wages.

Importance of Both Scientific and Practical Knowledge

In gaining experience in this way, he should, however, select a farm on which to work resembling his own or his prospective farm as closely as possible, both as to size and the kind of dairying conducted. A short term in one of the numerous agricultural colleges or dairy schools, now found in every state, will also be of value in a scientific as well as a practical way.

The foregoing remarks and qualifications apply chiefly to those of limited dairy experience. As the highest success in modern dairying involves both a practical and scientific knowledge, it is obvious that those with a wide practical experience should reinforce their knowledge from scientific sources, and those with a technical knowledge study the more practical side.

Chapter II How To Select A Daiey Farm

On the selection of the dairy farm depends not only the success of the investment and the size of the financial returns but also, in the majority of cases, the personal satisfaction derived from living amid congenial surroundings. Following are a few essential points, gleaned from a wide field of experience, which require little comment, so self-evident is the dairy wisdom they contain.

1. Do not buy a farm because it is advertised as a bargain. Its cheapness is determined by a lack of demand and the lack of demand is generally based on one or more important objections which either make the farm profitless or uncongenial for human habitation.

2. Do not assume more than two-thirds indebtedness if you must depend on the farm for a living. In case you are unable, after securing the necessary stock and equipment, to pay at least one-third down, either defer your purchase or rent. Simple mathematical computations show the difficulty of meeting interest and paying off the principal where less than one-third cash is paid.

3. Do not purchase a farm for dairy purposes without thoroughly investigating the water supply, both as to quantity and quality. All live stock require an abundant supply of pure water. It is desirable that water be available in several different parts of the farm.

%,. Do not purchase a farm which is incapable of growing grass and such forage crops as clover or com. Pasture and good hay are almost indispensable to successful danying under conditions prevalent in the United States.

5. Be cautious in purchasing a mortgaged farm, or one which has been abandoned for a number of years. A farm Avhich has been mortgage-ridden for a considerable period of time has generally been cropped so heavily and avariciously that its productiveness is a very uncertain factor. In a similar way an abandoned farm is invariably overrun with obnoxious weeds which can be subdued only at great expense.

6. Consider carefully the nature of the roads, traction facilities and the distance from permanent markets. If milk is to be sold for city consumption it must be delivered daily and good roads are, of course, essential. If milk or cream is to be sold to a creamery or cheese factory, the farm should be located within easy reach of several of these. In the present stage of dairy development an individual creamery or cheese factory is an un-

II. — A Typical Dairy Farm in Wisconsin showing milk house at extreme right, masonry silo at its left, dairy barn in center and house at extreme left.

certain market, as it may shut down permanently or at least close for the winter without giving notice. Where several creameries or cheese factories are within reach, the risk is reduced to a minimum. Creameries and cheese factories, however, are excellent markets in the respect that they will readily take all the product they can secure if the quality is satisfactory, since the larger the quantity of business they can do, the more economically they can operate.

7. In determining the size of the dairy farm, allow three acres of the total land for each cow. The actual amount of pasture may be about one acre for each cow, the remaining two acres being devoted to crops for winter feeding, reserve pasture, barn-yards and buildings. In Denmark, Holland, and certain other parts of Europe, where dairying is conducted on a very intensive basis, the cows are kept in the stable the greater part of the time. This practice enables more land to be devoted to forage crops and more cows may be kept. Imitations of this system have not been financially successful in the United States, owing to the much greater cost of hired help in this country. Pasturing eliminates, to a great extent, the hauling of feed to the barns, the hauling away of manure and the care incident to habitual stall feeding.

8. Consider the opportunities you will have to secure hired help. Dairy farming, especially when conducted on a large scale, involves the problems of securing and keeping competent and reliable help. Therefore, consider carefully the possibilities of securing help locally, as bringing it in from the outside or advertising for it is not only expensive but is often unsatisfactory.

9. Look into the social life of the community. One's neighbors are more important in the country than in the city, and the selection of social life in the country is virtually a selection of the country itself. Learn the prevailing nationality of your neighbors and their ideals and consider the advantages or probable nature of your social life from the standpoint of your hired help as well as of yourself.

10. Lastly, look into the legality of the title and secure expert advice as to the terms of purchase. The legal details of transferring real estate and the basis for estimating land values, taxes and insurance vary in different states and communities. These should, of course, be investigated before, not after, the land has been purchased.

The foregoing rules and requirements may seem to the reader, at first glance, extremely rigid. Not so ; they exclude only the worst farms, so many of which are a drug on the real estate market. Of good farms there are plenty, waiting only for brainy and energetic management.

Chapter III Which Beeeds Are The Best And Why

Every breed of cattle has been developed and perfected with a certain goal in view. That is, breeders have, by careful selection and mating, made cattle adapted for specialized purposes.

The following are the principal breeds of cattle and the purposes for which they are used :

Milk Milk and Beef Beef

Jersey Shorthorn Hereford

Ayrshire Red Polls Devons

The foregoing classification applies to the average type of cow of each breed. Individuals and special " strains " of any breed frequently show characteristics which place them in a class to which the breed as a whole does not belong.

The choice of breed for dairy purposes is generally made from the first column and wisely so, for these breeds have, for the past half century, attracted favorable attention as heavy milk producers. The center group includes breeds commonly known as general purpose or dual-purpose animals. Such breeds are adapted to the pioneer farmer or the man who engages in general farming and desires cows which require but a small amount of attention and still produce enough milk for the home table.

The dual-purpose animal has been criticized by many so-called farm specialists as being an attempt at a jack-of-all-trades in cow circles. Still, the valuable services which the breeds of the second group have given to the man engaged in general farming testify strongly to the merits and usefulness of these breeds in their proper place. In fact, more than seventy-five per cent, of the butter produced in creameries in the central West is derived from milk of dual-purpose cows, chiefly Shorthorns. The third group consists of breeds found chiefly on the great beef cattle ranches and stock farms, and may be dismissed from consideration by the dairy farmer.

The breeds in the first group from which the choice is generally made by experienced dairymen have the following origin and characteristics.

Jerseys

The Jersey cow originated on the Island of Jersey, in the English Channel, about thirteen miles from the French coast, and forty miles from the southern end of Great Britain. The Jerseys were recognized as a breed about the year 1750,

III.— A Promising Two- Year-Old Jersey.

but not till a century later did importations to the United States become active. Since then the breed has grown rapidly in popularity, and the name of Jersey cow is known wherever dairy cows are kept.

The chief characteristics of the Jerseys are the richness of their milk, their small size and docile disposition. Their milk is often too rich in fat for their own calves, but for a select market milk trade, Jersey milk is very desirable. The average weight of Jersey cows is about eight hundred and fifty pounds, and their small size results in economy of stable space. The bulls average about sixteen hundred pounds in weight. Pure-bred Jerseys vary in color, though shades of tan, fawn and yellow are the most prevalent. The head is small, eyes large and placid. The Jersey cow is light and graceful in movement, in fact, well-bred animals are distinctly- aristocratic in their actions and appearance. Success with Jersey cattle depends largely upon proper housing and gentleness, as they are not as vigorous as some of the other breeds, and their nervous system is highly developed and sensitive. In the Jersey bulls, this characteristic of the breed is exhibited by fractiousness, especially when improperly handled, and old Jersey bulls frequently become ugly without apparent cause.

Jerseys, as a breed, are spare of flesh, a desirable dairy quality, but for this reason their carcasses are little valued for beef.

GlJEKNSEYS

The Guernsey breed of cattle, which originated in the Island of Guernsey, also one of the Channel Islands, bears a strong resemblance to the Jerseys. In fact, both of these breeds are frequently referred to as Alderney cattle. Guernseys were recognized as a breed about 1850, and

IV. — Guernsey, showing typical markings.

importations to the United States began about 1875. The breed has found favor rapidly wherever introduced and properly handled. Guernsey cattle are slightly larger and heavier than Jerseys, somewhat coarser in appearance, though still very attractive. Their color is much the same as the Jerseys, though more often in patches, especially on the lower part of the body and legs. The cows give large quantities of milk, its richness, however, being somewhat less than that of Jerseys. Guernseys are gentle, quiet, easily managed, and these qualities are observable, to a less degree, even in the bulls. Both the Guernsey and Jersey breeds are noted for the rich yellow color of the milk and cream and butter made therefrom. The fat globules in their milk are relatively larger and separate more readily than those of other breeds of cattle.

Holsteins

The Holstein breed, though known in the United States under various names, is readily distinguished from other breeds by the characteristic black and white markings. In fact, they are frequently referred to in untechnical language as Blacks and Whites, although the more exact names are Holstein Friesians, Dutch Cattle or Holland Cattle.

As the last name implies, the cattle originated in Holland and from the beginning of the Christian era the breed has been constantly developed and improved. Owing to lowland pastures and the rich luxuriant grasses which have constituted the feed of Holstein cattle for centuries, they have developed large frames with a great capacity for milk production.

V. — A Well-Formed Holstein.

The Holsteins are perhaps the most picturesque of all dairy cattle. The Dutch make pets of their cattle, and as a result they have a quiet and docile disposition and are easily handled.

They are the largest of the dairy breeds and are noted for remarkable records of milk production. The milk is less rich, both in total solids and the percentage of fat, than any of the principal dairy breeds.

The fat does not rise readily from the milk, owing to the small size of the fat globules. This characteristic of the milk makes it appear less rich than it actually is, but nevertheless, the consuming public is somewhat prejudiced against Holstein milk since they believe it less nourishing than a milk which produces more cream on standing or is of a yellower color. The chief influence which has lately begun to have a countereffect upon the public sentiment referred to has been the efforts of Holstein breeders along advertising lines to show the public that Holstein milk is very rich in tissue- and muscle-building properties. This claim is true, yet, were Holstein milk richer and of a higher yellow color, the breed would doubtless be a great deal more popular than it now is -among producers of milk for city consumption.

As a matter of fact, the Holstein cow gives enough more milk than the other breeds to create a total butterfat production of very creditable amount. The world's record for the amount of butterfat produced in a year by a single animal has been held for several years by Holstein cows.

Ayrshires

The Ayrshire breed originated in and is named after the county of Ayrshire in southern Scot-

VI. — The Ayrshire, alert aud active.

land. The country is rolling and the climate rugged. As a result Ayrshire cattle possess more stamina, as a breed, than any of the others mentioned. The breed has developed and has been raised into prominence since about the year 1825. The most striking characteristic of the Ayrshire cow is her ability to thrive on coarse feed and rough and scantily covered pasture-land. In size and weight the Ayrshire cow slightly exceeds the Jersey. The former is fine-boned, active, alert, but inclined toward a nervous temperament and is less docile than any of the dairy breeds. In color the typical Ayrshire is reddish brown splashed with white. The head is relatively small and the expression bright, almost to wildness. The horns have an upward growth with the tips inclined backward.

Compared with the other breeds, the Ayrshire cow has a small udder and teats. Breeders have been able to remedy these objections and a large number of Ayrshire herds now have udders and teats of normal size, though not large. Ayrshires are good milkers, but the milk is neither of exceptional richness nor is the cream of the rich yellow color usually demanded by the trade.

The relative merits of the four chief dairy breeds may be summed up as follows :

Characteristics of Milk Richness Amount Color Keeping Qualities

1 — Jersey Holstein Jersey Ayrshire

2 — Guernsey Guernsey Guernsey Holstein

3 — Ayrshire Ayrshire Ayrshire Guernsey

4 — Holstein Jersey Holstein Jersey

Characteristics of Animals

Gentleness Gentleness Constitutional Relative size lvalue for rf Cows of Bulls Vigor of Cows

Beef

2— 3— 4—

Jersey Holsteiu Ayrshire Guerusey Ayrshire Holstein Holsteiu Guerusey Guernsey Ayrshire Jersey Jersey

Holsteiu Guernsey Ayrshire Jersey

Ayrshire Holstein Guernsey Jersey

CHAPTEE IV HOW TO CHOOSE A DAIEY COW

In the selection of cows for the dairy herd it is generally customary to look chiefly for productiveness, since productiveness is considered equivalent to profit. To consider only the amount of milk which a cow may produce is not, however, dairy wisdom. The chief consideration in the selection of a dairy cow should be her health, since the health of any animal affects not only her own value but the value of the entire herd. One of the most serious factors in the spread of the terrible scourge, tuberculosis, has been the indiscriminate and general introduction of diseased animals into healthy herds.

Tuberculosis cannot be readily detected by a superficial examination of the animal in the early stages of the disease, yet the animal may at the time of the inspection be expelling the invisible disease germs. Tuberculosis is not the only menace to dairy herds, but its importance is so great that every bovine introduced into the herd or brought on the premises for any purpose should either be isolated for a period of at least thirty days, during which the tuberculin test may be applied, or else should be accompanied by a certificate from a reputable veterinarian showing that the animal is in a healthy condition. The problem of controlling tuberculosis in the herd and the method of making the tuberculin test will be subsequently discussed.

The Principle of Cross-Breeding The second consideration of importance in selecting cows for the dairy herd should be their blood origin. There is neither profit nor satisfaction in conducting a dairy composed of " scrub " animals or mixed breeds, however well their performances at the pail at any particular time seem to justify their place in the herd. It is noteworthy that the first cross between pure-bred animals is often very satisfactory as a milk producer and as a valuable asset to the herd. But, when the second cross is made, the amount of milk produced generally diminishes and the animal is of inferior quality in other respects. If cross-breeding is further continued, the dairyman who practices it will ultimately have a herd of cows whose value as breeding animals is very uncertain.

Contrast with this condition of affairs the experiences of wise dairymen, who have started their herds with a few pure-bred animals and have followed a systematic breeding campaign. Their first cows may perhaps not have been unusually large producers, yet, if the sire was from a family of profitable cows, the offspring will be at least equal and probably superior in value to the average between the sire and dam. This truth is based on the well-recognized principle that nature aspires to perfection.

Pure-bred Stock is Always in Demand Further breeding will result in more pure-bred animals, and in view of the fact that a pure-bred herd requires no greater amount of expense and attention for care and maintenance than one of nondescript animals, the breeder will, in a few years, be well repaid financially for the line of breeding which he has followed. The problem of disposing of the male animals will be entirely solved, since pure-bred males are in good demand for breeding purposes, whereas ill-bred bulls of the dairy breeds are almost unsalable even to the butcher.

The female calves of pure-bred origin have in addition to their probable value as future milk producers the additional value of potential breeders. A study of the advertising columns of dairy papers will strongly impress upon the person about to engage in dairying the value of pure-bred stock. It matters not whether the preference has been given to the Holstein or Jersey, to the Ayrshire or Guernsey ; the ultimate returns and the satisfaction of blooded animals will be equal. Selfmade men may be in demand, but the poorly bred dairy cow, however phenomenal her performances may be, is not sought after, because breeders have learned that her milk-producing characteristics and capacity will probably disappear, on breeding, for several generations and the chances of securing valuable animals from such a cow are too slight to encourage the experiment.

Young Blood is Best for Foundation Stock A third important factor in the selection of a dairy cow is her age. However attractive the cow may be in conformation, in style and from the point of view of past records, if she is old, she is not desirable as an addition to the herd. An old animal is very likely to be a poor breeder, and expensive to feed. When sent to the block her value will be very slight and in a great many ways she is undesirable. Young blood, particularly good young blood, is as desirable in the dairy herd as in all lines of business.

The factor of productiveness which one is so likely to consider first now arises. The true production of a dairy cow can be determined accurately only by means of the scale and the test. The scale tells us the amount of milk she produces and the test furnishes information as to the richness of the milk. For the market milk trade the amount of milk is perhaps the most important, but it must be remembered that the certain standards of richness must be complied with and the test, therefore, should by no means be overlooked. In producing milk for butter or cheese factories, both factors must always be considered, since such factories commonly pay in proportion to the number of pounds of butterf at (also called milkf at) delivered.

Forcing Cows to Make Records

Milk condenseries pay in accordance with the number of pounds of milk delivered, although the contract which they have with the producers generally specifies that the milk must be of certain richness, four per cent, being the usual standard. The records of production which give the true value of the dairy cow must extend over a period of at least one year. Some breeders, by giving their animals stimulating foods and milking them three times a day, are able to produce very exceptional weekly or monthly records.

They seldom, however, furnish the sequel to these records, for the reason that the period following is generally one of recuperation rather than of a creditable performance. Records extending over a short period of time afford an index to the capability of an animal, but are by no means as valuable as records of a year's duration or more.

Where records are unobtainable, one must rely upon the appearance of the cow in making his selection. Like a horse-trade, this manner of buying animals is generally in favor of the seller, but fortunately a dairy cow has certain indications of milk production which cannot be covered up or exaggerated. A good milking animal should show a tendency toward spareness and under no consideration should she carry a very large amount of fat. The dairyman wishes his feed to be converted into milk and not into beef.

Physical Points of a Good Milker Looking at the animal from the head, one should seek and should find a broad forehead with large mild eyes set far apart. The neck should be thin and free of hanging fat. The chest should be well developed, yet not prominent. The body of the cow, commonly referred to as the barrel, should have a large capacity, as it is there that the feed is, through a wonderful chemical process, assimilated and transferred into blood and milk. The hip-bones should be prominent and far apart. A large capacity in the pelvic region indicates not only the probability of the cow being a large milk producer but also of being a good breeding animal. Now looking at the cow from the side, she should appear straight on top, but with the lower line sloping toward the rear and suggesting a wedge. She should show no indications of being leggy, and in the terminology of good dairymen " there should be little sunlight under her." Both forelegs and the hindquarters should be well muscled and sinewed but free from any more flesh than is necessary to comfortably carry the weight of the animal. From the rear the cow should show a deep, wide, and a well developed udder or bag. The teats should be placed far apart and should be of good size. The tail should be long and slender in preference to being short and stocky. The udder should be hung quite high and from the back of the flanks in preference to being attached to merely the under side of the animal.