United States history for schools

Front matter

UNITED STAT

FQQ. SCHOOLS

■ EDMOND S.MEANY

Preface

The Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association, in its final report (1909) on " The Study of History in the Elementary Schools," impressed upon writers and teachers of American history that they should keep the European background constantly in mind. In other words, American history is but a part of world history and can best be understood when presented as such. In this book especial effort has been made to conform to that sane and timely suggestion. Not only have the events usually considered as the European background received attention, but so also have such events as the independence of Latin America, the expansion of Canada, and the awakening of the Orient. The treatment of all such events has necessarily been brief, but enough of the facts are given to provide the pupil the essential perspective to enable him to realize his own country's development in relation to the rest of the world.

A glance at the table of contents will show that a natural plan of division and grouping of the materials has been adopted. As suggestions for References and Home Readings a few easily obtained books are cited in each chapter. All controversial questions are treated in a spirit of fairness. The author has aimed to give the text a deep human interest, but he believes that, in so doing he has not sacrificed accuracy. It was once the style to place the humanizing anecdote or illuminating biographical fact in vi Preface

fine print as a footnote. There are no fine-print notes in this book. But the choice morsels are not omitted. They are woven into the general fabric to illuminate the text itself.

In preparing the book for publication I have had help from my colleagues, Professors Edward O. Sisson, Edward McMahon, and Vernon L. Parrington, in the University of Washington, and from Miss A. L. Rouse with The Macmillan Company. To each of them I wish to acknowledge my gratitude for kindly interest and numerous suggestions for improvements in the text.

EDMOND S. MEANY.

University of Washington, Seattle, November, 1911.

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHERS

The attainment of a proper perspective is the aim of every earnest teacher of history. The day has passed when the relatively easy but slavish work of memorizing lists of names and dates will suffice for real training in this important field of knowledge. Every aid is of value which will enable teacher and pupil to grip the meaning, the movement, the perspective of history. The chief aid here offered along this line is the arrangement of the materials in eight principal groups or periods. This is a distinct departure from the older and less natural plan of grouping the facts around the wars and the administrations of the Presidents. The "Period of Discovery and Settlement" is followed by the " Expansion of the Colonies." The "Securing of Independence" is followed by "The Critical Period," which embraces only six years. Those years, from 1783 when our independence was secured to 1789 when the Constitution was put in force, were so full of meaning to the rest of our history that John Fiske's name for the period is fully justified. The next two periods are each forty years in length. The first, from Washington to Jackson (i 789-1 829), is called " Testing the Constitution." In this period the government was organized. Chief Justice Marshall's great decisions were given to interpret the Constitution and the laws, political parties were formed and reformed, new areas were acquired in the Louisiana and Florida purchases, the Missouri Compromise was adopted, viii Suggestions to the Teachers

and the Monroe Doctrine was announced. These and other events there treated show the test to which the Constitution was submitted. The forty years from Jackson to Grant (1829- 1 869) contain such events as the awakening of the West, introduction of the spoils system, contest over nuUification, destruction of the bank, settlement of the Oregon question, war with Mexico, Compromise of 1850, Secession, Civil War, and Reconstruction. This period surely deserves the title " Straining the Constitution." The time from 1869 to the present is divided into two periods whose names are self-explanatory : " The United States a Greater Nation," and " The United States a Greater World Power." The table of contents shows in outline how the forty-five chapters have been arranged under this natural plan of subdivision. The perspective of each section expands into that of the chapter and of each chapter into the group or period and, as shown above, the right groups make clear the perspective of the whole work.

Wars have influenced American history. There was a time when textbooks indicated that the Revolution, the Mexican War, and the Civil War, with a few connecting paragraphs, were about all that were necessary to record. Such treatment now seems ridiculous in the light of the splendid achievements of peace. In studying the wars themselves the idea of proper perspective must be held firmly in mind. Besides the heroics there must always be remembered the burdens and the awful sorrows of such struggles, not only of those on the fields but of those in the homes as well.

The numerous maps and illustrations have been carefully selected to assist the two main objects of the text : first, the orderly movement of American history, and, second,

Suggestions to the Teachers ix

the relation of that movement to the rest of the world. The teacher should supplement these aids with any other pictures available, and especially with additional maps. The correlation of history and geography is of the highest pedagogical value. Have your pupils draw maps on paper or blackboard and then have them discussed in class. Keen and helpful interest can be aroused in such exercises by selecting maps of disputed boundaries, important battles, first roads, or other items in or near the locality of your school.

The chronological tables and the study questions will be found helpful in reviews, but the teacher should not hesitate to use other questions. In doing this, however, let your attitude be that of a leader and not that of a detective. Never dishearten a pupil by unfair or trick questions.

Another exercise that will prove of interest and value is to have your advanced pupils show some of the contrasts between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution, both of which are among the documents in the Appendix.

Words difficult of pronunciation have no place in a book of this character. It is not possible, however, to avoid the difficult names of men and places. The pronunciation of these is carefully indicated in the index. By causing the pupil to make frequent use of the index for this and other obvious purposes you will encourage the desired " dictionary habit," as well as increase the value of the book and its work.

Outside reading by teacher and pupil for each lesson is highly desirable. At the beginning of each chapter will be found works for reference and for home readings. These lists arc made brief for a purpose. It would have

X Suggestions to the Teachers

been very easy to supply longer lists. In practice it is found that the long lists are more confusing than useful. A few good books have been selected, and the citations to them are carried through from chapter to chapter. The acquisition and famihar use of those few books will prove far more practicable and beneficial in the average school than would a chance reference now and then selected from a long bibliography. The few books cited from chapter to chapter and the prices at which they may be obtained from any bookseller are as follows : —

American History, by Roscoe Lewis Ashley, Head of the Department of History in the High School of Pasadena, California $1.40 Source Book of American History, by Albert Bushnell Hart. Professor of History in Harvard University .... .60

An Introduction to the History of Western Europe, by James Harvey Robinson, Professor of History in Columbia University . i .60 The Men who made the Nation, by Edwin Erie Sparks, President of Pennsylvania .State College ..... .50

Source Readers in American History, edited by Professor Albert Bushnell Hart ; four volumes :

Volume I. Colonial Children ...... .40

Volume II. Camps and Firesides of the Revolution . .50

Volume III. How our Grandfathers Lived . . . .60

Volume IV. The Romance of the Civil War . . . .60

Pioneer History Stories, by Charles A. McMurry ; three volumes :

Volume I. Pioneers on Land and Sea 40

Volume II. Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley . . .40

Volume III. Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the

West 40

It is thus seen that for the expenditure of a small sum a good working library of reference may be obtained. Other books and poems are cited at the head of the chapters. They are easily obtained in any community of American homes. Teachers desiring more complete bib-

Suggestions to the Teachers xi

liographies can obtain an abundance of help from such a standard work as Channing and Hart's Guide to the Study of American History.

Persuade your pupils to begin the collection of individual libraries. They may have to begin by saving and classifying clippings from newspapers and magazines. Whatever the beginning, the growth of the boy's or the girl's library in American history will prove one of the surest ways of awakening and holding interest in the subject so fundamental to good American citizenship.

If you are a teacher in a rural school, you will find this book a complete working tool, but you should be willing and ready to use all the aids provided in the book. You should also be willing, if necessary, to spend some of your own money for the few reference books indicated above. If you are in a city school, surrounded by good libraries, you can do all the rural teacher does and much more, for you can draw on the world's storehouse of knowledge in collected books. Prepare for each lesson from the best sources available and do not rest content unless you feel each day that you have helped some young American minds to have greater respect for truth, greater love for home and Nation.

Table Of Contents

I. PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Why Europe explored the Oceans . . . i

Chapter I Why Europe Explored The Oceans

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 1-22; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 334-340, 347-35° •

Home Readings. — Brooks's The Story of Marco Polo ; Fiske's Discovery of America ; Hale's Stories of Discovery ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 1-3; Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella ; Wright's Stories in American History.

1. First Discovery of America. — Eric the Red was one

of those hardy Norsemen who made wonderful voyages of conquest and discovery a thousand years ago. He had a son, who is often referred to as "Leif the Lucky," but whose proper name in history is Leif Ericson. This young man is entitled to the credit of having discovered America nearly five hundred years before the eventful voyage by Columbus. Those Norsemen were as bold seamen and as brave warriors as the world has known. In open boats, propelled by sails and oars, they traveled fearlessly thousands of miles from their homes. In this way they had gone from Scandinavia to Iceland (870) and then to Greenland, which name they used in the hope that it would attract settlers. In reality that bleak land is green for only a short time each year. From Greenland Leif Ericson sailed, in the year looo, southward to a land covered with timber. It was certainly a much better place than Greenland. They found corn growing and grapes in abundance. Ericson and his crew spent the winter in the new land,

and as they sailed away.

they called it " Vinland the Good." The Norsemen returned to Vinland ( 1007), but probably the savage character of the natives caused them to abandon such trips after that second voyage. The exact situation of Vinland is unknown.

It may have been in Labrador or it may have been in New England, Those voyages were made so long ago that we are fortunate in having any accurate information of them saved for us. That was before the days of printing. The Norsemen saved their records in the form of stories or sagas. These were handed down from memory by generations of Saga men. While the voyages to Vinland were fresh in the memory of those who had known Ericson, Adam of Bremen visited Denmark (1047). When he went home, he put the story in his book. That old book is important, for its account corresponds well with that handed down by the Saga men. The Norsemen's story of Vinland appears in the Saga of Eric the Red. It was handed down from

-^vfi

Ship of the Norsemen.

Why Europe explored the Oceans 3

memory for three centuries before it was written in a book

For a long time the honor of discovering America was withheld from the Norsemen. There are two reasons for this : they did not follow up their discovery with a permanent colony, and Europe knew little or nothing of those voyages of looo. In China, Japan, and other countries of eastern Asia, there are claims that America was discovered by those Orientals hundreds of years before the work of the Norsemen. It may be that the future will establish some of those claims, but, even so, they cannot dim the credit due those hardy Norsemen. For precisely the same reason is credit for real discovery due Columbus, notwithstanding the voyage of " Leif the Lucky."

2. New Era dawning in Europe. ^ — ^ While the Norsemen boldly sailed forth from the coasts of Scandinavia to unknown seas and lands, the Mediterranean Sea remained the principal center of the world's commerce. Such had been the case in ancient times when Greece and Rome were dominant, and it continued so, under changed conditions, through the Middle Ages. As the differing circumstances increased in number and importance, the people of Europe gave more and more of their attention to the Atlantic Ocean. Many of those changes reached a climax in the last half of the fifteenth century. This fact has caused writers to fix in that period the beginning of modern history, as distinguished from the older divisions of medieval and ancient history. Among the changes referred to were the increased knowledge of the Orient brought about through the Crusades and the travels of Marco Polo, the use of gunpowder, the invention of printing, and the obstructions raised in the old paths of trade by the Turks and other Mohammedan peoples. These facts not only influenced conditions at the dawn of a new era in Europe, but they also had much to do with the beginnings of American history. It will be well to study a few of the most important events that helped to transfer Europe's center of interest from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.

3. Results of the Crusades. — Inspired by religious zeal, thousands of men, and in one case thousands of children, traveled from Europe in the effort to rescue from unbelievers the Holy Land and more especially the Grave of Jesus. The men bore upon their breasts the figures of a cross, and hence these marchings were called Crusades, that word coming from the Latin crux, meaning cross. There were nine crusades from 1095 to 1277, and besides making more energetic the life of the Christians in Europe, the marching, shipbuilding, sailing, and fighting gave them more confidence in their abilities and strength. The survivors of those armies brought home and spread among their neighbors a new desire for the spices, silks, and jewels they had found among the people of western Asia. Such Italian cities as Venice, Genoa, Florence, Pisa, and Amalfi had long enjoyed a trade in Oriental goods. These were brought by caravans of camels to some port on the Mediterranean and were then shipped to the merchants in those cities who would in turn ship them for exchange to other countries. The returning Crusaders helped on this trade by greatly increasing the demand for the goods.

4. Marco Polo. — Two Venetians traveled far into Asia, and on their second journey one of them took his son, Marco Polo, then but twenty years of age. The lad became a favorite of Kublai Khan, a great ruler who made

Why Europe explored the Oceans 5

use of the young man's talents. After spending nearly thirty years in that interesting country, which he called Cathay, he returned to Venice (1295) and gave the world one of its greatest known books of travel. He told of all the wonders he had seen or had heard about. One of those wonders was an island called Cipango, where the temple was roofed and the floors paved with gold " a good two fingers thick." All this made more people anxious to travel to such a land and to trade with such a people.

5. Gunpowder. — ^The people of China had for centuries been using powder for bombs and rockets. When introduced into Europe, it was first used for fun and for ceremonies. Then it was

used in wooden cannon

to frighten horses in

battle. When it was

used in weapons, about the iron armor of the

proud knight of no avail. It was one of the principal

agencies that helped to destroy the feudalism that had

dominated the Middle Ages.

6. Printing. — Not many people could afford to have libraries when all the books were written or copied by hand and for that reason cost large sums of money. It was a great improvement when short books were carved on wood and printed from blocks. In 1454 John Gutenberg, of Mainz, began printing from movable type. This came in the midst of the revival of learning, which characterized the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. Soon books began to multiply, intelligence increased, and the nations found new inspiration and new strength when each possessed the beginnings of a literature in its own language.

7. The Fall of Constantinople. — The growing trade in Oriental goods had been grievously taxed by the Mohammedans who had spread their dominion along the northern coasts of Africa and from Syria, through Asia Minor, to the gates of Constantinople. The Turks, one branch of the Mohammedans, laid siege, and in 1453 the great city fell into their hands. It became necessary for Europe to fight stubbornly against further Mohammedan invasion. It was highly desirable, also, that a way should be found to the spice lands of India by which the extortions of the Mohammedans could be avoided.

8. Cape of Good Hope. — For years the brave seamen of Portugal, encouraged and helped by Prince Henry the Navigator, sailed along the shores of Africa seeking a way to India, and in i486 Dias found the way, far to the southward. From his experience there he called the point of land " Cape of Storms," but the king of Portugal, rejoicing over the great success, promptly changed the name to Cape of Good Hope. The route to India was found, but it was appalling in length and in danger. A dozen years passed before a voyage to the spice lands was completed. In 1498 Vasco da Gama anchored in the Bay of Calicut.

9. Conquest of the Moors. — Seven centuries before Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, Spain had been conquered by another branch of the Mohammedans, known as Moors. They had crossed into Spain from the northwestern shore of Africa (712) and in twenty years made themselves masters of Spain. It took seven hundred and sixty years for the Spanish Christians to re-

Why Europe explored the Oceans 7

conquer their own lands. By the marriage of Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Leon two of the struggling Spanish armies were united, and the Moors were compelled to take what proved to be their last step in Granada. While besieging the enemy there in the spring of 1492, the Spanish camp was visited by an Italian mariner, who sought aid from the king and queen for a plan very dear to him. He wanted to find a way to India by sailing west from Europe. His request for aid was refused, and he started back with a heavy heart toward the monastery La Rabida, where he had left his little son Fernando. The Spanish armies were victorious. The Moors were conquered. There were great rejoicings and thanksgivings. In the midst of them some one suggested that the rejected mariner be brought back. It was done. Since it seemed to the Spanish sovereigns that they were chosen of God to protect and to spread His faith, it was agreed that the mariner should be helped to carry the Gospel to the peoples of far lands. It was in this way that the early work of Spain in the new world took on something of the character of a crusade.

1. Trace on a map Leif Ericson's probable route to America.

2. What was the center of the world's activities in 1450 ?

3. How did the Crusades affect trade ?

4. What made Marco Polo famous ?

5. What were the first uses of gunpowder ?

6. Why was the invention of printing important ?

7. How did the Turks' conquest of Constantinople aiTect trade ?

8. Of what does the name of the Cape of Good Hope remind you ?

9. How did the conquest of the Moors in Spain help toward the discovery of America ?

10. Trace the old trade routes to the Orient and show the need of new routes.

Chapter II

References. — Ashley's American History, po. 24-38; Hart's Source Book, pp. 1-6; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 350-352.

Home Readings. — Hale's Stories of Discovery ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 4-12 ; Irving's Columbus; King's De Soto in the Land of Florida; McAIurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. I., pp. 122-160 (Columbus), 161-185 (Magellan), 222 -226 (Ponce de Leon) ; Mackie's With the Admiral of the Ocean Sea.

10. Christopher Columbus. — The Italian mariner was Christopher Cokimbus, a native of Genoa. In his boyhood he had studied drawing, geography, and astronomy. He had been a sailor on the Mediterranean. In 1440 he was wrecked off Cape St. Vincent and reached shore

s by aid of a plank. He made his way to Lisbon, where he became a map maker. There he met and married the daughter of an Italian navigator, who was under the patronage of Prince Henry the Navigator. He went to

ClIRISrOPlIKR COLUMliLsi.

live for a time at the home of his father-in-law, who was then governor of Porto Santo. There Columbus was able to study many old maps and charts. For years the behef that the world is a sphere had been growing. No one had yet sought to prove this by sailing westward. Just

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221;

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when Columbus decided to do this is unknown, but it was probably about 1474. He had the map of ToscaneUi, the famous Italian geographer, and believed it was correct in placing the East Indies about where the West Indies really are.

Columbus did not have the means to furnish and man the necessary fleet. He sought aid from Genoa, Portugal, Venice, France, and England. He had confidence and enthusiasm for his plan, but he had often met with ridicule from learned men who heard him. The king of Portugal, whose seamen were slowly exploring along the coast of Africa, sent a secret expedition westward to test the idea of Columbus. They returned without sighting land. Ten long years Columbus endured these rebuffs, and then he secretly left Portugal for Spain toward the end of 1484. He had splendid devotion for his great plan, but he had to wait a little more than seven years longer before the needed help was given. He had two good friends in Spain. These were Marchena, the Superior of La Rabida, and Garcia Fernandez, the learned physician of Palos. These with others brought about the intercession with the sovereigns and finally secured success.

11. The Great Voyage. — When Queen Isabella gave her approval to the plan, she became enthusiastic and remained the best friend Columbus had during the rest of her life. She furnished fully half the money needed for the voyage. Two decrees were issued, one of great help, the other a hindrance. The helpful decree required the town of Palos to furnish within ten days two caravels and to provide money for the pay of the crews. Palos had incurred the monarch's displeasure and these boats were exacted as a penalty. The boats were finally furnished ;

but the angry town officials took ten weeks instead of ten days to obey the decree. The harmful decree was one that excused from punishment at law any one who would join the crews. This welcome to criminals and debtors disgusted many honest mariners, who shunned the idea of sailing with such companions. At this crisis the enterprise was helped by two brothers named Pinzon. They

Famous Fleet of Columbus.

were wealthy men and they came forward with their money and their influence just as both were greatly needed.

The fleet, when completed, consisted of three vessels. Though but small caravels, they are probably the most famous vessels in the world's history. The largest caravel, the Santa Maria, was only sixty-five feet long and twenty feet in breadth. She had a small cabin, while the other two, the Pinta and the A^iha, were open boats with high prows and sterns, the better to ride the waves. Cokimbus commanded the Santa Maria as well as the fleet. The captains of the other two boats were the Pinzon brothers.

They sailed from Palos on August 3, 1492, and headed for the well-known Canary Islands. From there the voyage was in unknown waters, and it was not long before the sailors became anxious to turn back. All kinds of fears and superstitions troubled them, and at one time they threatened a mutiny. But the courage of Columbus was equal to every occasion. He held his crews to their work. Early on the morning of October 12 they sighted one of the Bahama Islands. They had found the new world. Columbus thought he had found a part of India, and so he called the natives there Indians, a name that has been used ever since.

Columbus said the natives could be converted to the holy faith by gentle means, so he gave them red caps and beads. They were delighted and swam out to the boats with parrots, balls of cotton thread, and javelins. These were bought with glass beads and hawk's bells, and in this way was begun the great trade with American Indians. Some of the people had bits of gold hanging from their ears or pierced noses. Columbus asked where they got it. Even in 'this search of gold he was moved by lofty ideas of religion. He wrote these words to the king and queen :

" For I have before protested to your Highnesses that the profits of this enterprise shall be employed in the conquest of Jerusalem, at which your Highnesses smiled and said you were pleased, and had the same inclination."

They touched at a number of islands. On Christmas Day they were at Hayti, which they called Hispaniola.

Here the Safita Maria was wrecked, and Columbus built a fort of the wreckage and left a small colony. He called the place La Navidad, Spanish for The Nativity, which we express by the word Christmas.

Columbus with the remaining two caravels left the little fort in January and reached home in March, 1493. The king and queen heaped upon him honors, titles, and favors. He had certainly brought great glory to the flag of Spain.

12. Some Effects of the Voyage. — The whole of Europe was greatly interested in the news that Columbus had returned from his voyage crowned with success. One of the first things Spain did was to seek the approval of the church. On May 4, 1493, Pope Alexander VI. issued his famous bull, or decree, approving the work of Spain. He divided the world by declaring that a line in the ocean one hundred miles west of the Azores should be the boundary. All lands found east of that line should belong to Portugal on account of that nation's work along the coasts of Africa, and all lands west of that line should belong to Spain on account of the discoveries by Columbus.

Portugal was not wholly satisfied with the division, and in 1494, by the treaty of Tordesillas, Spain and Portugal agreed on a new line farther west, so that Portugal could claim more of the lands that might be found. France and England were far from satisfied with such a division and soon made efforts to get parts of the lands for themselves. Spain and Portugal, however, followed up their advantage with vigor.

13. Columbus and his Followers. — The magical effect of the great voyage was seen in Spain when Columbus prepared for his second voyage. Instead of trouble in getting men for a small fleet he found a swarm of grandees and adventurers clamoring for places in the seventeen vessels of his new fleet. Great piles of baggage were left at the docks to be plundered by the mob when the crowded vessels sailed away. They did not care for the loss of the baggage, for they felt sure of reaching Cipango and Cathay, where they would enrich themselves with gold and silks described by Marco Polo.