Wheat culture in Tennessee

Front matter

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I

Chapter I

HISTORY — LIMITS OF CULTIV'^ATIOX; — EFFECTS OF A FAIL- URE OF THE CROP TPOX SOCIETY TEMPERATURE :0F

RIPENING — ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN WHEAT CUL- TURE.

Longfellow, in his poem of '' Hiawatha," introduces a beautiful and rofnantic myth in regard to the origin of maize. Many traditions among the Indians furnished him with a foundation for this story. These children of the forest recognized in maize the staff of life — the man's real friend. No time so joyous among them as the corn-dance at the maturity of tliis cereal; and in view of the fact that it was so essential to tlieir very existence, they had good cause to dance and make merry. It is true, many other plants were cultivated among them, but none so vital. It M'as their sine qua non^ their ultima thide, of agriculture' Honors and sacrifices were given to the Great Manitou for this noble gift to his forest children. Thus may we as well record the origin of wheat in some poetic Georgic as the great, inestimable gift of the gods to man, or accept the mythological account of Ceres having taught to Triptolemus of Eleusis its cultivation and use. It figures often in the Holy Scriptures, and is placed at the head of all vegetation.

Man is often compared to wheat; and this parable is made because man being the first of creative beings in excellence^, so, when he is brought into comparison with individuals of the vegetable kingdom, none is found so well suited as wheat. Moses frequently refers to it in his first recorded account of mankind, and it is there selected as the best of offerings to Deity. In Leviticus ii. it is called meat-offering, and in fact throughout the whole Bible it is spoken of as the best and purest of food. By its means Joseph was enabled to safely pass a nation through seven years of famine.

Chinese history declares it was introduced into China by the Emperor Shin-hung, 2700 B.C.

In existence, it is older than the creation of man. When Adani walked forth a created being, no doubt fields of wavy grain sown by Deity awaited his use. Its habitat is almost co-extensive with that of man. It differs so much in its requirements from all other plants, in time of cultivavation, that seasons, temperature, and altitude seem subordinate to its convenience. It is found on the bleak shores of Alaska, and on the equatorial terraces of the Andes; on the broad steppes of Eussia, and in the fragrant valleys of Cathay. Everywhere that man has moved, or emigrated, it stands as his best friend. When the Egyptian monarch, in ancient days, built his pyramids as mausoleums, he did not deem it inappropriate to lay by his side grains of this blessed cereal. It blesses alike the tables of the ric-h and the poor. It constitutes the feathery rolls of majesty, and the heavy brown l^read of the serf. As the poet designates woman as the " last best gift of God to man," so may we claim that wheat was the first greatest boon of an all-wise, beneficent Being to his creatures — one that could cheer, but not inebriate ; sustain, but not destroy.

There are, however, important limitations to its successfull growth, even in temperate climates, and these are determined by an examination of the peculiar distribution of heat and

In TEJ?-NESSfifc. 7

humidity, or amount of rain, throughout the year. Its sensitiveness to extremes of this sort renders its culture irregular in success.

The limits of the successful cultivation of wheat is not determined so much by the cold of winter as by the temperature of summer, 57.2°, being the minimum mean temperature of summer heat in which it will mature. The Southern limits vary betv/een 20° and 25° N. and S. latitude, though a sufficient elevation would, of course, reduce the heat as to bring it to any point even on the Equator. The adaptation of the cereal to so great a diversity of situations gives it a value beyond all other products of the field. It furnishes all the elements of nutrition in a most eminent degree.

The absolute temperature limits of the growth of wheat belong to the summer months, or to those in which it ripens; and for these months they may be very precisely defined. The points of both extremes are not far apart, and, if absolute mean temperatures as recorded for the year could be employed, the district embraced would be narrow, indeed.

Before referring to actual districts of its growth, it may be well to give the apparent temperature limits of the ripening season. We all remember the great outcry made in England in 1853, about the retardation of the ripening of Avheat in consequence of the low temperature. The temperature of July and August was 2° less than usual, or about 57°, and as a result a falling oif of from one-third to one-half of the crop took place. The disastrous effects of a wheat failure in Europe are well known. It has been said that a failure of the wheat crop in France is always followed by a revolution and by bread-riots in England. In England, a temperature of 57° is not sufficient to mature the grain, on account of the excessive humidity of that climate.

This combination of moisture and low temperature does not exist in any district in the United States where wheat is grown. On the contrary, the United States give good results as to ripening in high temperatures. At the extreme b WHEAT CULTUEE

South May is the ripening month, with a mean temperature of 60° to 70°. In Virginia May and June, with the thermometer at from 63° to 72°, and in Tennessee, 20th May to 10th June, and the heat at from 65° to 80°. In Illinois, June, at 60° to 70°, and in New York, July, at 64° to 69°. From these comparisons it will be seen that the temperature for the last growth of the wheat falls rather under 70°. As Ave go into warmer climates, the period of ripeiiing recedes until it occurs even in April, as in Egypt.

Thus it may be observed that the mean diiference, or range, in the thermometer is only about 15°, so that, were we to take the thermometer as a guide, it would appear that wheat culture would only range between these means. But practical experiment has shown that, in fact, its limits are far beyond^ and this diiference is explained by the combination of hciit and moisture. A dry climate will mature wheat at a much lower temperature than a moist one at the same degree of heat. Per co)dra, a moist climate requires a higher degree to bring it to maturity. In this manner, though the heat of midsummer may reach to a mean of 95°, yet elevations will reduce this mean to a point of successful cultivation. In England and Northern Europe the entire year is embraced in the growth of wheat, and so the temperature of every month must be taken into account. In South Euro])e there are two months in the year, and in the United States, or rather the southern part, there are three months not required in the cultivation of the wheat crop, while in the northern part of the Union August is not included in the time demanded for wheat culture. A large portion of wheat is grown only during the warm months, such as spring wheat.

It will be necessary to notice the eifect of the winter months more particularly, as the winter varieties will grow up to the limits of the S2)riug varieties, and even the difference is more in varieties than oth.erwise, as either kind can be changed by cultivation into the other. In a list of high tomjieratiire hereafter given, it is not to be understood that \vlieat will not grow or mature beyond this or the low tenil>erature, but that it w'ill not, above or below these points, be a paying or remunerative crop. Some kinds are grown, as before stated, in every point settled by man.

By a slight examination, however, it will be seen that temperature does not alone decide the success, as the dry plains of Western Texas, or the broad valleys of Southern California, produce wheat equal to the best Illinois lands. The u])lands of Georgia and South Carolina will also produce better wheat than the coast lands of the same temperature. This is owing to the difference in the humidity of the climate.

Another element of success that must be noted is the amount o^ snow-fall in regions of country that have a temperature so low that all wheat vegetation would be destroyed. AVhen the snow is melted by the genial warmth of spring, the wheal plant that has been protected springs up and grows with a marvelous rapidity. Alternations of heat and cold are very prejudicial to the safety of wheat, as it greatly tends to Avinter killing. The growth of wheat in winter renders it more sensitive to the influence of succeeding cold, and tends to destroy it. So that the line just below the region of continual snow is the point most likely to suffer with winter killing.

In the region where wheat is protected by snow, we select the leading points: Rochester, for New York ; Gettysburg, foi- Pennsylvania; Cleveland, for Ohio and Michigan; and Milwaukee, for Illinois and Wisconsin. These are favorable States, and August is not necessary for the growth of ulieat at any of these points. The points where the greatest damage is done by alternations of heat and cold without the protecting inffuences of snow, are Cincinnati, New Harmony, and St. Louis. These places receive a vast amount of rain from the influences of the rivers and valleys along which thev lie. This humidity is combined with a higher temperature also, so that it retards very much the suocossful issue of a crop. A large amount of rain and a warm climate are not favorable for its cultivation.

But with all observations and all theories in respect to wheat culture, there are modifications unseen and unknown that render futile all calculation. Only practical experience can always determine its best habifat. Soil, climate, temperature, with all its changes and variations, from altitude, depression, etc., etc., will make all places of seeming diametrical oppositeness equally suitable for its culture.

The following table of temperatures for the best wheat-growing districts of the world has been compil'od, fvo'.n which it will be seen that Tennessee has a temperature midway between the extreme limits of the leading wheat-g; owina: countries of the world :

I

IN TENNESSEE.

u

Year.

oc d X -3 t- c to

O uO O t-i X to OJ r-J o X UO X 00

1 Winter..,

-f -M CO O

M S c5 cS

UO -# t- r-l to i-J t-l

Tin r-^ Tti o: CO CO

CO o c; oi tc CI = 00 X o to ct rt t :' ._; .0 to* to r-- x

COCOCOO^OO — r^ wo

Aiitiimn.

to 1-; I-. 00 oi 05 to O! r- X X o:' r- -« ci ot o: — c' CO

Summer.

:c c cc CO tc b to i to

LO -_ I-I to t-< X ^ t£ c^ X ti ^ - t^ 00

CO O 01

62 4

Spring.

n' X :r c?

^ CO 'f CO CO

UO tH r-l O — X -♦'

Dece'ber.

~i n oi o< iC 00_ = CO to_

oi S J^ ?i iM

Nov'ber.

o CO » L-;

C^' X i." X

C 'O^CO t-;f--

XOtCXCO^r^tOX-ll i ir: ^ o lO

S to to uO o 2 to lO L.0 o

OC C: C t- Ci <\ C 1-^^ r? GO

Sept'ber.

■o lO i-o o ■-•; Ti. U-: I

August.

-r— X t~-r-i> ototototo — tototox

July.

i- t^ -^ O -O to O -.D t^ r- t-- X b- c- £■- CO to o -^ w o — to ;;; I u: iO O O 'O ;0 to to C: tc

~

CO X tH c:

-

~

Ol o

00 to CO r-4 Ol

CO uo

May.

Ct

.c s

C Ol -*

S t-

X

= cc i~ to to to to t— g o 3 s

■s s g

April.

-* CO .* CO 00 lo to t:; to o to to

March.

30.2 39.3 30.4 34.8

42.9 43.2 35.2 31.4

38.1

27.4 20.7 31.7 02.1

February

20.5 30.8 30.1 29.4

0-. Ot Ol to - X r-.

.^i ^ lO tX Wi -t c:

:o-fxottocW'-'O0X r-^ rt' — ' to' ■■- -o i-^ x" to' t>l

CO ."^0 CO C^ CO r-i i-l (NO

Jauiiary.

27.2

21.4

0.8

17.4

8.6

= ^ 0-1

oo"-* CO*

CO CO 00

12.3

24.0 57.3

Iz; .

! 3 g = ffi 3 c

; cj 02 s « S f^ sM3

■sS SiS C3-3-S

J- a N M.g g ^

T, a a a ~ s 3

c Pi. ts o 0) >: rs d .a c3

HfiWnSHWW^

It is known that Tennessee has an isothermal line along the northern shores of the Mediterranean and south of the Bhick Sea; in fact, near the birth-place of this greatest of all the cereals of the world.

Scientific men have made researches into the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, by various means, principally the microscope, and by means of these observations and chemical analyses have been able to classify these different substances into various genera — species, orders or families, and classes. In order to do this intelligently, they embraced every known or fancied resemblance in one order; for instance, the cat family embraces many animals that are similar in conformation, having stiff hairs on the upper lip, with toes divided, armed with claws, and sucli as crouch to spring on their prey. The lion, tiger, panther, leopard — these are as mucli a feline as the cat itself. So in the vegetable kingdom we find the division into orders, genera, classes, and s{)ecies, founded upon differences in their characters. There are two grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom — those having flowers, Fhceaogamous, and those without flowers, the Crypfogainous. Upon the flowers a basis is made for dividing the flowering plants into genera and species. It will be readily seen that the similarity between turnips, radishes, cabbages, mustard, and many more have united them under the common name of Crucifera, the petals having a fancied resemblance to a cross. The pea, bean, lupine, etc.^ not only have similar flowers, but the fruit is incased in a pod, or legume, and so this order is called leguminous, from a Latin word meaning to collect. Thus have all vegetables been classed by Linnaeus, the great naturalist. Vegetation is further divided into exogens and endogens, or those whose stem increase or grow from layers of wood deposited between the bark and the heart, and thofcc which do not. In the first clas.-j are ash, oak, hickory, etc.; in the latter corn, oats, rye, wheat, etc.

The fruit makes the next division, those having solid

IN TENNESSEE. IS^

seeds heing mor.ocofylcdon, tliose having seeds composed of two parts fastened together, such as peas, beans, etc., being dicotijeldon.

This same method of classification extends through all the various kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral. For instance, the lime family is called calcareous, because lime is the distinguishing or predominating element. This comprises limestone, marble, alabaster, plaster of Paris, seashells, marl, etc. The Aluminte are topaz, ruby, emerald, alum, etc., because alumina predominates. And flint, or silex, gives the name of Silicife to sand, onyx, agate, quartz, jasper, and many other gems. Within a few years the theory of evolution, advanced many years ago, has received many adherents, and a great deal has been written to prove this doctrine. According to this theory there is a regular progression from the lowest forms of the mineral kingdom, through the long scries of vegetation, to the highest form of animal life.

Chapter II. Botanical Desceii^ion — Hybridization — Interesting Experiments

The botanical name for wheat is Triticum Vidgare. Synonyms — Triticum Hyhernum, T. ^-Estivum — A-S-hweate, white, in distinction from rye and other dark colored grains.

The common winter wheat has a fibrous root, and one or more erect, round, smooth-jointed stems, which rise from three to five feet higli and are furnished with linear, pointed, entire, flat, many-ribbcJ, rough, somewhat glaucous leaves, and jagged, bcai'ded, stipules. The flowers are in a solitary, terminal, dense, smooth spike, two or three inches long. The calyx is four-fiowercd, tumid, even, imbricated, abrupt, with a short compressed point. In the upper part of the spike it is more elongated ; and in this situation the corolla is more or less awned. The grain is imbricated in four rows.

Triticiim, wheat belongs to the subtribe of the grasses, hordeinea, from barley, which is in structure closely related to wheat, and rye also belongs to the same division. Besides the grain producing sj)ecies, all of which are annuals, there are several with perennial roots, which by some botanists have been placed in a distinct species agropermSy the most important of which is the troublesome triticum rcpens ((!0uch grass), (wild onion), of which more hereafter. Like other cereals the origin of wheat is deeply involved in speculation. It is found growing wild in various mountain countries, in some places where from the accounts of travelers it could not have spread from cultivation. De Candolle believed it sprung from the Hiraalays of Asia, though the pioneer miners of California make notice of seeing it among the western crags of the Rocky mountains and Nevada Sierras. The latter dissemination, however, may have taken place from the numerous missions established by the Catholics in that country.

About 1855 M. Fabre asserted that he had proved wheat was wc/ihps ovafa (a common grass of Southern Europe) developed by cultivation. He asserted tliat by successive sowings he had produced forms of cegilops which passed for specimens of wheat, and by continuing this sowing he had produced wheat. Tliese experiments are not, however, worthy of credit, for it is now knov/n these grasses have been either accidentally or for a purpose hybridized with wheat, and thus he only developed the fact of the dis- [)osition of this grain, as of all others, to return under favorable circumstances to its original state. But Nature's laws had been transgressed, and here the new, much valued species, expired. Nature will perpetuate a movgrd but never a mule.

In the vegetable kingdom the results of such experiments are precisely analogous. The individual plants that participated in the crossing may be distinctly traced in the hybrid. Affiliated plants thus crossed produce fruits that will fecundate, whilst the violation thus produced will not bear fruit, or at least if fruit is borne, the seed will not germinate. Flowers possess a strong attraction for pollen from flowers of its own species, and hence if it is desired to produce a hybrid, it is necessary to use a large quantity of pollen, but there will be no result unless they are of the same genera or species. The earliest record we have of hybridization is in the writings of Cameranus, in 1694. Linna3us w^'ote of hybrids in 1751, and Kolreuter, eight years later, succeeded in producing hybrids by artificial fecundation. Since this time, numberless experiments have been successfully made in that respect. In order to succeed in doing this, it is only necessary to bring the pollen which is contained in the anthers of one flower in contact with the stigma of the pistils of the flower to be impregnated. To succeed in effecting this, it will be necessary to select flowers of the same maturity, as those of diiferent ages will not do. The stamens are the male organs, and the pistils the female organs of reproduction and the pollen is an exceedingly fine dust contained in the anthers of the stamen. The stamens of the plant to be hybridized must be removed early in the morning while wet with dew, and then about noon the stamen of the male plant must be shaken over the stigma of the pistils of the female plant. The stigma of the pistils resembles a sponge, and has a powerful absorbent property, so that it will grasp the powder and convey it by a delicate tube to the fruit or seed.

Hybridization is an exceedingly delicate operation and can only be successfully performed by a skillful hand. It often happens in gardens that through the agency of bees, bugs and insects, accidental hybrids are produced. It is so Avell known that gardeners keep apart all affiliating vegetables, even when they are ignorant of the cause of their mixing. This is most especially the case with cabbage tribes, melons, cucumbers, etc. It is more difficult to produce hybridization of cereals than any other vegetable, but not impracticable. The difficulty arises from the manipulation necessary in removing the unexpanded anthers, and then applying the pollen of another plant.

Mr. Maund, of London, obtained a prize in 1851 for producin^r hvbrids from the annexed varieties of wheat :

IN TENNESSEE.

Male.

"Old Lammas Pearl White Clustered Eed Old Lammas Boston Ked White Cove

(beard) Dark Cove

Female.

(smoQth) Pearl

Result Larger than either.

K a ii

Course, rough, short. .

Very large long ear.

Large ear, strong 'straw.

Beardless, ear downey.

Small deformed ear.

His experience was that a strong male and a "weak female produced a better result than a strong female and a weak male.

In 1848 Mr. Raynbird, of Loverstoke, obtained a premium from the Highland Society, Scotland, for successful experiments of this kind. He began his experiments in 1846 with the Hopetown, a long eared and long straw white wheat, and Piper's Thickset, a course v/heat with thick clustered ears, a stiff straw and very prolific, but liable to mildew. The hybrids thus obtained were intermediate between the two parents, the ears shorter than the Hopetown, and longer than the Thickset.

We would commend the example of the.se enterprising gentlemen to some of our farmers, and also the public spirit of the English societies in offering premiums to the successful experimenter. It is beyond question within the power of any one thus to originate new varieties having the good points of various kinds. Nor should one entering on these experiments be discouraged at a failure, for it often happens the result will not be satisfactory. But the simple fact that hybrids from accidental fecundation have furnished some of the most prolific and hardiest varieties, should be an encouragement to prosecute such inquiries. When it is considered that during one year in the United States alone 'the vast sum of $200,000,000 is spent for flour, any one can readily see the immense advantage the introduction of a new variety that would increase the yield one or twobusli<els per acre, would be to the producer. Our agricultural soeie- 2 ia[ WHEAT CULTtJEE

tres; should encourage this by offering a suitable medal to any ohq who is able to bring before the public a good seed suitable to e«r soil and climate. We have a vast number of specimens of greatly differing qualities both of grain and straWy and nothing would be easier under such a stimulus than to derive from these differing kinds such as would be suitable for all the different soils and elevations.

IN TENI^ESSfiE. J9

CHAPTER UI.

AXCIENT HABITAT — INTEODUCTION INTO OTHEE COUN- TRIES — NEW VARIETIES — IMPORTANCE OF SELECTING SEEDS, AND THE BEST METHOD OF DOING SO,

It is a well ascertained fact that those vegetables thrive best in the soils to which they are indigenous. According to a rule adopted by the celebrated Baron Humboldt, to determine the native country of any species, when that fact is in doubt, it is fair to presume it belongs to that country in which the greatest number of known species exists as indigenous to the soil. This rule would place Persia as the place of its nativit}\ According to Diodorus, Isis and Osiris discovered wheat, barley and other vegetation, growing wild in the valley of the Jordan and carried them into Egypt, into the country of the Nile, and taught its inhabitants their uses and cultivation, and the natives considered this act of such immense benefit to mankind they deified and worshiped these agriculturists ever afterwards. Strabo declares that wheat was found growing spontaneously in Persia, and also on the banks of the Indus. Other writers attribute its nativity to India instead of Persia. But be that as it may, it will readily occur to the reader, judg-. ing from the reasons laid down by Humboldt and others, that, considering the many species of Triticum spread over both Persia and Northern India,' these countries may fairly* claim the parentage of this plant. Now the locality of these valleys will lie between the parallels of 30° and 40° North Latitude, and Avithin these same parallels the whole of Tennessee is situated, and though we are the antipodeg..

of those countries, the same sun that governs their climate and meteorology gives us the same life-giving principle.

Many plants are produced and flourish spontaneously in certain places on the earth's surface, yet such is the adaptability of most plants that through the interference of man they are caj)able of being transferred to various points and of growing successfully as in their birth-place. Wheat is a signal example of this character of cereals though not confined to that species. In Asia wheat was only known by a few well defined species, yet by culture it has improved and increased until now largely over two hundred kinds are known and grown. At first botanists divided it into ^'hard ^cheats/' '^soft toheats," and '' Polish toheats/' but soil, cultivation and climate have developed it into the many beautiful varieties now shown at every county fair.

The hard wheats are the products of the warm countries, such as Egypt, Sicily and South Italy. The soft wheats flourish in the colder, damper climates, such as Sweden, Denmark and North Russia. The Polish wheats are those grown in the country from which its name is derived, and are hard or flint wheats. The hard wheats abound in o-luten or flesh-forming principle, and white wheat in starch or fat-producing principles.

The hard wheats will not, according to our Southern method of milling, make as white flour because a large amount of silica and alumina exists in the hull or bran, and this being incorporated in the flour gives it a yellow hue. For this reason the country south of us has been heretofore debarred from cultivating the varieties of wheat best suited to its climate. But a new milling process, of which more hereafter, is fast being adopted by which the wheat is deprived of its hull before grinding, and then the flint wheats will make as white flour and far more nutritious bread than any others. The white varieties of wheat are tender and liable to gprout from damp weather, and are far more subject to tiie depredations of the weevil. Besides, they require a much longer time to be dried before grinding or packing for transportation. Tlie hard wheats alone furnish flour suitable for manufacturing into maccaroni.

Some soils are remarkable for the j)roduction of. good seed, while other soils will cause a constant degeneration, so that a frequent resort to new seeds is required. This is so well known in England that the produce of a certain parish in Cambridgeshire is sold for seed at a larger price than can be obtained for it for milling purposes. It will be to the interest of farmers to take advantage of this hint and always buy their seed from some one who uniformly makes good crops. It has been ascertained that all kinds of seed wheats of the same variety contain the same relative proportion of gluten and starch. For bread making the excess of gluten would be no objection, but to create a perfect vegetation a due proportion of these constituents is necessary and is essential to perfect maturity. So that, if this fact can be ascertained, it will at once be known there is an excess of nitrogeuous or animal manure in the soil or of vegetable humus. In either case the remedy is easily applied by the addition of the deficiency.

By selecting seed from ears that show a superiority to the surrounding field, and sowing it carefully, we may be able to perpetuate a new species made by a fortuitous impregnation or some peculiarity of the soil.

Many instances of this kind occur, and it is beyond belief the amount of wealth given to a single county by a careful attention to this simple hint. In many of the Basin counties an average of 25,000 acres are' annually sown. Before the introduction of the Boughton, Tappahannock, Fultz and other good varieties of wheat, fifteen to twenty bushels were considered an extraordinary yield. Since then from twenty-five to thirty-five are not uncommon on properly cultivated land. It it true the pride of havirsg a superior variety will stimulate to a carefu! prepa uU)u cf land and a prcper attenticn to. tM s-sltuie. Vh is one of the legitimate results of good seed. Attention to thi» will increase the production for each county from 20,000 to 100,000 bushels annually. We have many recorded instances of the very valuable results from selecting good, large, plump grains for seed. In some instances the drop has been quadrupled in quantity and quality by the use of choicest seed selected in the manner stated.

*^ Mr. J. B. Armstrong, of Wicomico county, Maryland, from one ounce of Fultz wheat, sown in drills, obtained 84 ounces of wheat. From one omice of Clawsou he obtained 76 ounces. The moles destroyed some of the latter or it would have been as good as the former. Mr. L. M. Wilson, of the same county, obtained two bushels of Clawson from 1-^ pints of seed. This variety is a hard white flint, and has a very strong straw." — American Miller.