The fruit garden

Front matter

I

i

THE

CHAPTER II. PRTTNING APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF FrUIT TrEES

UNDER Different Forms, ..... 203

PAET IV.

SELECT YAEIETIES OF FEUITS.

CHAPTER I.

Abridged Descriptions of Select Varieties of Fruits, • 277

CHAPTER II.

Gathering, Packing, Transportation and Preservation of Fruits, 354

Part I. Geneeal Principles

GENEEAL PEmCIPLES.

CHAPTEE I.

NAMES, DESCRIPTIONS, AND OFFICES OF THE DIF- FEEENT PARTS OF FRUIT TREES.

General Rema/rJcs, — Tree is a living body composed of many parts, such as roots, branches, leaves, buds, blossoms, fruit, &c. All these have different offices to fulfil, assume different forms and characters, and are known and designated from one another by different names when subjected to the practical operation of culture. "Without some knowledge of the names and structure of these different parts, of the principles that guide their development, their relative connection with, and influence upon one another, tree culture cannot be, to any man, really pleasant, intellectual, or successful ; but a misty, uncertain, unintelligible routine of manual labor.

The industry of our times is peculiarly distinguished by the application of science — ^the union of theory with practice in every department ; and surely the votaries of the garden, whose labors, of

1, atree. ^ the collar. the main root. C, lateral root.

D, fibres. E, stem or trunk. F, snain branches. G, secondary branches, H, shoots, one year's ycovrxh.

GEHEEAL PEIN-CIPLES.

all others, should be intelligent, will not allow tliiemselvea to fall behind and perform their labors in the dark.

Fully sensible of the importance of this preliminary study, and confident that the minute and practical details of culture cannot be well understood without it, I propose here, before entering upon the main subject, to describe, in as few and as plain words as possible, the structure, character, connection, and respecti^re offices of the various parts of fruit trees, and the names by which each is known in practice.

Section 1. — ^The Eoot. The Eoot is composed of several parts

1st. The collar {Ay fig. 1), which is the centre of growth, or point of union between the root and stem, usually at or just below the surface of the ground. In root grafting seedlings, this is the point where the graft is set.

2d. 27ie tody or main root {B^ fig. 1), which usually penetrates the earth in a vertical dii'ection, and decreases in size as it proceeds downwards from the collar. It is also called the taj> root A seedling that has not been ti-ansplanted has usually but one descending or tap root, furnished in all its length with minute haiiy fibres.

3d. The lateral roots {G^ fig. l)are principal divisions or branches of the main root, and take more or less of a spreading or horizontal du-ection. "When seedlings are transplanted, having a portion of the tap root cut off, these lateral or side roots are immediately formed.

4:th. The fibres or rootlets (Z>, fig. 1) are the minute hairlike roots which we see most abimdant on ti-ees that have been n^equently transplanted. Different species of trees vary much in their natm^al tendency to produce fibres. Thus the pear and the apple require frequent transplanting, and often root pruning, to produce that fibrous condition which is necessary to great fi'uitfulness ; whilst the

THE ROOT.

paradise apple, nsed as a stock for dwarf trees, and the quince, are always quite fibrous, the former never, and the latter seldom requiring root pruning.

5th. The Sjpongioles are the extremities of the fibres, porous and spongy, through which the food of trees derived from the soil is mainly absorbed ; these points are composed of soft, newly formed, delicate tissue, and are exceedingly susceptible of injury. The slightest bruise or exposure to a dry or cold air is fatal to them ; and this is the reason why transplanted trees receive generally such a severe check and so frequently die. If trees could be taken up in sucl^a way that these spongioles could all, or mostly, be preserved, trees would receive no check whatever ; hence large trees are removed in midsummer without a leaf flagging.

6th. Growth of Boots. — ^The most popular theoiy at this time is — that the growth of roots is produced by the prolongment of the woody vessels of the stem, which descend in successive layers to the exti*emities of the roots, and thus promote their extension.

"When these descending layers are interrupted in their course by some natural or accidental cause, or by ai*t, as when we cut off the ends of roots, they pierce the bark and foiTQ new roots or new divisions of the root in the same manner that branches are produced on the stem. Thus the roots furnish food to the stem and branches for their support and enlargement, and inretani,thestem and branches send down layers of young wood to increase and solidify the root ; the one depending entirely upon the other for its growth and existence. Practical cultivators ^re familiar with many facts that illustrate the intimate relations and mutual dependency of the roots and stems. Eor instance, where one portion of the head or branches is much larger or more vigorous than the other, if the roots be examined, it will be found that those immediately

GENERAL PEINCIPLES.

under, or in direct connection with the largest branches, will have a corresponding size and vigor. In cases where one side of the top of a large tree is cut off, as in top grafting, a large number of new shoots are produced on the cut branch, and, if the roots be examined under or in connection with this branch, a corresponding new growth will be found there. It is quite obvious from these and similar facts, that whatever affects the roots or stems of trees favorably or unfavorably, affects the whole tree. ' If the foliage of a tree be entirely removed in the growing season, the absorbent action of the roots is suspended ; and if the spdngioles or absorbing points of the roots be cut off, the growth of the fop instantly ceases. Those who have leisure should pm-sue the study of these highly interesting and important points still further.

Section 2. — ^The Stem

The Stem is that pai-t of a tree which starts from the collar and grows upwards. It sustains all the branches, and forms the channel of communication between the different parts of the tree from one extremity to the other.

Plants like the grape, with twining or climbing stems, are called vines^ and such as have no main stem, but have branches diverging from the collar, as the gooseberry, currant, &c., are called shrubs or hushes. Where the stem is destitute of branches to some distance from the ground, it is usually called the trunk.

Different Parts of the Stem. — A stem or branch of a tree is composed of the following parts, which are distinctly observable when we cut it across. Fig. 2 represents the half of a cross section of the stem of a young tree five years old.

1. The Bind or Outer Ba/rk {A) on shoots or young parts of trees ; this is thin, smooth, and delicate, like tissue

THE- STEM.

Fig. 2 F.

Fig. 2, half of the hori- ■,*ntal section of a five year vM stem. outer bark tiT rind. B, inner bark or libor. C. sap-wood or last formed layer. D, perfect wood. £, pith. F, vertical section of a five year old stem, showing the 6.tt) layers of perpendicular woody tubes or fibres.

Fig. 2.

paper, and is easily separated frora tiie parts beneath it.

In some species, as the grape vine, for example, this rind is shed and renewed annnally, whilst in others, as the apple, pear, &c., it unites with the layer of tissne beneath it, and forms a hard, scaly, or corky snbstance, nsnally called cai'tical layers^ which separate from the tree at different periods, according to the age of the

subject and other circmnstances.

It is these cortical layers that give rise to the expressions smooth and rougJi back.

2. TTie Inner Bark or Liber {B) — ^This is the interior portion of the bark in immediate contact with the wood. It is composed of perpendicular layers of soft, flexible fibres, filled np \rith tissne. It is this part of the bark of the Basswood that is used for budding ties, &c., the tissue being separated from the woody fibre by maceration.

3. The Sajp-^oood {C) — This is the youngest or lastfonned layer of wood, immediately below the inner bark. It is distinguished in all trees by being softer and lighter colored than the older parts.

4. The Heart or Perfect-ivood {Z>.) — This is the centi-al or interior portion of the stem or branch, grown firm and mature by age. It is generally a shade darker in color than the newly-fM'med ^lart or sap-wood.

5. The Pith {E) — This is the soft, spongy substance in the centre of the stem and branches. In soft-wooded BpecieSj like the grape vine, it is large ; in hard-wooded

GENEKAli PRINOIPLES.

species, as the apple, pear, quince, &c., small. In young slioots it is soft, green, and succulent, and fills an important part in their development. In the old part it is dry, shrivelled, and seems incapable of taking any part in the process of vegetation, and this appears evident from the fact that ti'ees often continue to flom-ish after the centre, containing the pith, has begun to decay.

Sti'ucture of the Stem. — ^The stem is composed of woody fibre and cellular tissue, a substance similar to the pith. The woody fibre is arranged in perpendicular layers, and the cellular tissue in horizontal layers, running from the pith to the bark and connecting them. The mingling of these two systems gives to the smface of the cross section of a stem the beautiful veined or netted apjoearance observable in fig. 2. The perpendicular layers of woody fibre are most clearly observable when we cut a stem vertically ; they are then easily sej^arated from one another. The layers or plates of tissue radiating from the centre to the stem are usually called tho medullary rays.

The inner bark or liber, as has been stated, is, like the wood, composed of thin layers of delicate perpendicular fibres mixed with tissue.

GrowtJh of the Stem. — The stem of a tree is originally the extension of the cellular tissue of the seed. As soon as leaves are formed thev organize new matter, which descends and forms woody fibres: the layers sent down from the first leaves are covered with those sent down from the next, and so on, one layer after another is produced until the end of the season, when the leaves fall and growth ceases. A yearling tree has, therefore, a greater number of layers of woody fibre at the collar than at the top, and is, consequently, thicker; the second. }^ar the buds on the '"r-t vt;j *s i:rov. tli i^roduce shoots, and these organize new layers of woody libre, that descend and cover those of tlip ];revions year, and thus growth proceeds from

BEAJq-CHES. 7 year to year. Between each year's growth there is generally a line, in some cases more conspicuous than in others, that marks off the formation of each year, so that we are able to reckon the ages of trees with great , accuracy by these rings. "When it happens that a tree,*' from certain circumstances, makes more growth one season than another, we find the ring of that season larger. The new wood is always formed between the inner bark and the last layer of wood, so that one layer is laid upon, and outside of another, and the bark is continually pressed , outwards.

The new layers of bark are also formed at the same place, or within the previous one. From this mode of growth, it results that each layer of wood is more deeply imbedded as others ar^ formed on the top of it ; and each layer of bark is pressed outwards as others are formed within it. In some cases, as in the cherry, for example, the bark is so tough as not always to yield to the general expansion of the tree, and slitting is resorted to for the purpose of preventing an unnatural rupture, which would eventually take place by the continued pressure of growth from within.

Section 3. — ^Braitches

Branches are the divisions of the stem, and have an organization precisely similar : they are designated as,

1st. Main Branches {F^ fig. 1) ; those that are directly connected with the stem or trunk. In pyramidal trees, they are called lateral branches. The branches of different species and varieties of fruit trees, difter much in their habits of growth ; and it is highly important to the planter to consider these peculiarities, because certain habits of growth are better adapted to particular circumstances than others. Thus we have erect branches (fig. 3), which produce trees

GENERAL PRINCIPLE3.

of an Tipriglit and compact form. Curved erect lyranches (fig. 4), proceeding almost horizontally from tlie stem for short distance, and then becoming erect ; these, also,

Fig. 8. Fig. 4. Fio. «.

Vi§s. 3, 4, 6, different habits of growth of trees. 3, erect ; 4, ctinred erect ; ^ spreading or horizontal.

form upright symmetrical heads, but much more open than the preceding. Also, Twrizontal or Reading hfcmcJiea (fig. 5), that foiTQ wide-spreading heads with irregular outline. And, lastly, drooping hromches^ when they fall below the horizontal line. The branches of most varieties of apples and pears become pendulous when they have borne some time ; and even in young trees of particular varieties, some of the branches assume a drooping and irregular habit.

2d. Secondary BrmicTies {G, fig. 1), are the divisions of the main branches : occasionally those near the stem take such a prominent part in forming the outline of the tree, as to assume all the character of main branches, ex cepting in position.

3d. Shoots (JT; fig. 1). This is the name by

BRANCHES.

young parts are designated from the time they emerge from the bnd mitil they have completed • their first season's growth. These have also important peculiarities that serve to distinguish certain varieties. They are variously designated as stout or slender^ stiff or fiexihle^ erect or s^preading^ short jointed if the buds be close together, and long jointed when the contrary. The colors of their bark are also strikingly different, and form very obvious distinctions amongst varieties. The Snow PeacTi^ for instance, has pale greenish shoots, by which it is at once distinguished. The Ja/rgonelle^Bostiezer^ and many other varieties of the pear, have darh ^pv/rplisTi shoots, while Wo Dix and St. Germain are quite yellowish^ the Glout

Fio. 6. Fig. 7. Fio. 8.

Pig. 8, wood branch of the apple. 7, fruit branch ; »a, B, C, young spars ojt two fear-old wood. 8, fruit branch of the pear ; B, C, young spurs on two-ye«r-ol wood.

GrJENEEAL PEINCrPLES

Morceau^ grey or drdb^ and tlie BartleU and Buffam quite reddish. The shoots of certain varieties of apples and pears, and especially plums, are distinguished by being downy ^ furnished to a greater or less extent with a soft and hairy covering — ^in some cases barely observable.

4th. Wood Branches (fig. 6) are those bearing only wood buds.

5th. Fruit Branches are those bearing fruit buds exclusively. They are presented to us under different forms and circumstances, all of which it is of the highest importance to understand.

In 'kernel f ruits., such as the apple and pear, the most ordinary form of the fruit branch is that generally called fruit spur (J., B^ (7, figs. Y, 8, 9). It appears first as a prominent bud, as in fig. Y, on wood at least two years old ; and for two or three seasons it produces but a rosette

of leaves, and continues to increase in length, as in fig. 9. After it has produced fruit, it generally branches, and, if properly managed, will bear fruit for many years. Aj)- ple and pear trees of bearing age, and in a fruitful condition, will be found .covered with these spurs on all pai1:s of the head except the young shoots.

In addition to the fruit sj>ur^ there are on the kernel fruits slender y^^mz5 hranclies^ about as large as a goose quill, and from six to eight inches in length (fisj. 10) ; the. buds are long,

Fio. 9.

Fig. 9, fruit branch of the pear.

A, B, and C, older spurs.

BEAKCHES.

narrow, and prominent, and the first year or two after their appearance, prodnce bnt rosettes of leaves, yielding fruit generally about the third year. On trees well furnished with fruit spurs, these slender branches are of little account, but they are useful on young trees not fully in a bearing state. They are generally produced on the lower or older parts of the branches or stem, and, in the first place, are slender shoots with wood buds only ; but owing to their unfavorable position and feeble structure, they receive only a small portion of the ascending sap, and the consequence is, they become stunted, and transformed into fruit branches. In pruning young trees, slender shoots are frequently bent over, or fastened in a crooked position to transform them into fruit branches of this kind; but this will be treated of in its proper place.

Certain varieties of apples have a natural habit of bearing the fruit on the points of the lateral shoots ; and frequently these terminal fruit buds are formed during the first season's growth ©f the shoot. Fig. 11 is an example ; ^ is the point

where a fruit was borne last season; a shoot of last season ; and G its terminal bud, which is a fruit bud. The fruit branches of the jpeaoh^ wpricot^ and nectarine^ are productions of one season's growth ; the fruit buds form one season and blossom the next* but as on the

Fig» 10, slender fruit branch of the apple— all the buds are fruit buds. Fig. 11, a branch of the apple showing the" tendency of some varieties to bear on the points of the branches. A, the point where a fruit was borne last season ; JB, a shoot of last year; C, its terminal fruit bud.

GENEEAL PEINCIPLES.

Fig. 12, fruit spur of the peach on the old wood.

apple and pear, there are different forms of the fruit branch.

In the first place the fruit spur (J., fig. 12), a group of buds like a bouquet ; these are little stunted branches on the older wood that have assumed this form.

The most important fmit branches of these trees are the vigorous shoots of the last season's growth, containing both fruit and wood buds (fig. 13), and the slender fruit branches, bearing all single fruit buds, except a wood bud or two at the base. Fig. 14 represents' such a branch of _ the peach, A and B being wood buds. The fruit branches of the plum and cherry, and the goosebeni^y and currant, are sirbilarlj produced. A yearling shoot, for instance, the second season, will produce a shoot from its terminal bud, and probably shoots from two or three other buds immediately below the terminal, whilst those lower down will be transformed into fruit buds, and produce fruit the third season. Tig. 15 is a branch of the cherry. A is the two-year-old wood; JB, one year ; C and D, fruit spurs on the two-year-old wood, with a wood bud usually at the point. Fig. 16 is a fruit spur from the older wood ; A, the wood bud at its point.

FHg. 13, mixe' fcod and fruit branches of tne peach ; C, B, E, fruit buds ; F, Q a, leaf buds ; J a?uble buds ; C, triple buds, the two side buds being fruit bud% Hnd the centre (fe a leaf bud.

BRANCHES.

Fig. 17 is a brancli of the plum ; A, the two-year-old wood; J?, one year old; and 2>, spurs. Fig. 18 is a

Fig. 14, a slender fruit branch of the peach ; all the buds except Jl and B, and the terminal one, are fruit buds.

fruit spur from older wood.

The wood bud in the centre of these groups of buds on the spm* enables them to increase in length every season. 'NeYr buds are produced to replace those that bear, and so the spurs continue fruitful for several years, according to the vigor of the tree, and the manner in which it is

Fig-. 15, branch of the cherry ; .5, two-year-old wood ; B, one year ; C and 2?, fruit spurs. Fig. 16, fruit spur of the cherry ; the bud A, in the centre of the recoup, is a wood bud.

seated.

GENERAL PEIXCIPLES.

The fruit brandies of the quince and . the medlar are slender twigs on the sides of lateral branches, and the fruit is borne on their points.

Section 4. — ^Buds

1st. TTie Natv/re and Functions of Buds. — In a practical point of view, buds are certainly the most important organs of trees, because it is through them we are enabled completely to direct and control their forms and

Fig. 17

Fig. 17, branch of the plum ; ^, two-year-old ^J^g^p productivCneSS. wood ; B, one year old ; C and D, spurs. Fig. 18, ^ r p

fruit spur of the plum on the old wood. Whoever, therefore,

wishes to become a skilful and successful tree cultm-ist, must not fail to make himself familiar with all theii' forms, modifications, modes of development, and the purposes they are adapted to fulfil in the formation of the tree and its products. The immediate causes of the production of buds on the growing shoots of trees, and the sources from which they spring or in which they originate, are alike thus far mysterious, notwithstanding they have been the subject of a vast deal of research and speculation among botanists and vegetable physiologists for many ages. "We are able, however, to trace clearly and satisfactorily the objects they are

BUDS.

Intended to fulfil in the development of the tree, their connection with, and dependency upon other parts, and the circumstances under which they can be made to accomplish specific pm-poses.

Every bud contains the rudiments of, and is capable, under favorable cii'cumstances, of producing a new individual similar to that on which it is borne.

This fact is clearly demonsti-ated in the propagation of trees by budding, where a single eye is removed from one shoot and placed in the wood of another, to which it unites and forms a new individual similar to its parent. So in propagation by eyes, as in the grape vine, where a single bud with a small portion of wood attached, becomes a perfect plant.

Every perfect bud we find on a young yearling tree or shoot is capable of being developed intQ a branch. ISTaturally, they do not ; but we know that by the application of art they can be readily forced to do so.

For instance, the buds of a yearling tree, if left to take their natural course, will only in part produce branches, and these will generally be nearer to the extremities, where they are the most excitable, being in closer connection with the centre of vegetation : but we cause the lower ones to develope branches, by. cutting off those above them to the extent that the particular character of the species or variety, or of the buds themselves in respect to vigor and vitality, may require. Hence it is that the forms of trees are go completely under our control when we possess the requisite knowledge of the character and modes of vegetation of buds.

2d. Different Names and GTia/racters of Buds. — All bu(Js are either, 1st, terminal.^ as when on the points of shoots ((7, fig. 19); 2d, axillary^ when accompanied by a leaf situated in the angle made by the projection of the leaf from the shoot or branch {A fig. 19) \ 3d, adventir

16 GENEEAL PRINCIPLES.

turns or accidental, when originating accidentally as it were, or without any regularity, on the older parts of trees,

Fio. 19— Lateral Braitch.

Fig. 19. ^, a superior bud. B, inferior. C, terminal A and 5, Axillary and unaccompanied by a leaf. They aro often produced by the breaking or cutting off a branch, or by a wound or incision mad^ in the bark. In the management of trained trees special means are taken to produce these buds on spaces of the tnmk that it is desirable to fill up. We sometimes see instances of such buds on the stumps of old trees.

The terminal and axillary buds produced on young shoots, seem to have a different origin from these accidental buds — ^the former are connected with the pith of the shoot, as we may see by dissecting them. On cutting into a young shoot below a bud we find a cylinder of pith entering into the bud from the pith of the shoot, but we do not find this connection existing in the case of the adventitious buds. ^

Practically considered, buds are classified as follows : —

1. Lateral. — ^Those on the sides or circumference of

shoots, being the axillary buds of the botanist (A, 19).

2. Terminal. — ^Those on the points of shoots (C.^ fig. 19). 8. Superior. — ^Those on the upper sides of horizontal

branches {A^ fig. 19).

•

BTJDS. 17

L Inferior. — ^Those on the lower side of horizontal branches fig. 19).

5. Stipular. — The small, barely visible buds found at the

base of ordinary buds.

6. Dormant or Latent. — ^These are scarcely apparent buds,

generally towards the base of branches : They may remain dormant for several years, and then, in some species, be excited into growth by pruning close to them.

Buds are again classed as leafbuds SLiid fruit huds.

7. Zeaf Buds {jF., G, II, fig. 13) produce either leaves or

branches ; they differ in form from fruit buds in being in most cases longer and more pointed in the same species.

These are again designated as — Single, when only one is produced at the same point (iT, %13).

Double, when two are together (/, fig. 13). Triple, when in threes {C and J, fig. 13).

These double and triple buds are almost peculiar to the stone fruits, and especially the peach, apricot, and nectarine.

The size, form, and prominence of leaf buds vary in d, striking degree in different varieties of the same species, and these peculiarities are found to be of considerable service in identifying and describing sorts. Thus, the buds of one variety will be long, pointed and compressed, or lying close to the shoot. Others will be large, oval and prominent, or standing boldly out from the shoot. Others will be small, full, and round. Thus, for instance,

^ ' the wood buds of the Glout Morceau are short and conical, broad at the base, and taper suddenly to a very sharp P'jint inclined towards the shoot ; they have also very prominent shoulders, that is, their base forms a prominent

• projection on the shoot. The seales ai'e also darkt with

18 >

GENEEAI. PEINCrPLES.

light gray edges. In tlie JosejoMne de Maline pear tho buds are quite remarkable for tbeir roundness, bluntness and prominence. If shoots of the Bartlett and SecTcel pears, two well known yarieties, be compared, although they present no decidedly obvious peculiarities, yet they will be found very different. Those of the Seckel are much broader at the base, more pointed, and lighter colored, being a dark drab^ whilst those of the Bartlett are reddish. These miscellaneous instances are chosen Bimply to draw attention to these points, and to show the ordinary modes of comparison. When we speak of leaf buds, we have reference only to the simple bud and not to the large, pointed, spur-like productions frequently produced towards the middle or lower part of young shoots that ha^e made a second growth, that is where growth has ceased for a while and the terminal bud has been formed, and afterwards, in the same season, commenoBd anew, and made a second growth.

8. Fruit Buds. — In the early stages of their formation and growth all buds are but leaf buds. Thus, on a youn^^^ shoot of the cherry and the plum, for example, of one season's growth, the buds are all leaf buds. The next spring a part of these produce new shoots, and others are transformed into fruit buds that will bear fruit the following season. The transformation is accomplished during the second year of their existence, and it usually happens that they are the smallest and least fully developed that are so transformed : the more vigorous pushing into branches. In the peach, the apricot, &c., on which the fruit buds are produced in one year, the change from a leaf to a fruit bud occurs towards the latter part of the season. The primary cause of the transformation of leaf into fruit buds is not satisfactorily known, although many theories exist on the subject. Observation, however, has taught us many things in relation to it. It seems that all trees

BUDS.

mVist acquire a certain maturity, either natural or forced, in order to produce blossoms or fruit. A tree that is furnished with a rich, humid soil, containing an abundance of watery nutriment, and left in all respects unrestrained in its upward growth, maj attain the age of ten or fifteen years before it commences to form fruit buds ; whilst in a soil of a different quality, Ttry and less favorable to rapid growth, or if constrained in its growth by being grafted on some particular stock, or by some particular mode of training, it may produce fruit in two or three years.