The National university of Ireland

I. Preliminary Sketch

It is a matter of notoriety amounting to a scandal that the Irish people, quick-witted, intelligent, and devoted to learning as they have always proved themselves, were for centuries unable to obtain in their own land the advantages of such higher education as a University confers. Not from the time of the dissolution of those great medieval monastic institutions, which had been the glory of western Christianity, the training ground of the scholars of Europe, until the thirty-fourth year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, did the State make an attempt to remedy, even in small part, so appalling a condition of affairs. In 1591 the University of Dublin was founded. It was a strictly Protestant institution, and, alike by its constitution and their own religious tenets, the vast majority of the people of Ireland were debarred from its portals. Eor a period of over 250 years this University, with its solitary college of Trinity, was the only University in Ireland. Maynooth College was, it is true, founded by the Irish Parliament in 1795, and received an annual grant from the public funds, but as it was a purely ecclesiastical corporation, and none but those studying for the priesthood were entitled to admission to its student body, it cannot be described as in any sense a University in the modern acceptance of that term.

The spectacle of some 8,000,000 people, of whom but a fractional minority had access to the sole Irish University, thus deprived of advantages which every other branch of the Caucasian race was enjoying, so moved the government of the day that in 1845 three Colleges of University standing were established, having their sites respectively in Belfast, Cork, and Galway. These Colleges were thrown open to students in the academic year 1849-50, and were officially combined into one University, under the title of the Queen's University of Ireland. This institution was foredoomed to failure. The Bill, which, when passed, established the Colleges, was during the second reading debate described as " a gigantic scheme of godless education," because the teaching of religion in any form was specifically prohibited. Such an idea, which is now more or less sanctioned, passively, if not actively, was in that day repellent to large numbers of all sections of Christians in the United Kingdom. The " godless " epithet stuck. The three Queen's Colleges were looked at askance by many non-Catholics, and although two of them were situated in the most Catholic parts of Ireland, Catholics were forbidden by rescript of Pius IX from sending their sons there to be educated. The whole situation was therefore decidedly unsatisfactory.

As a set-off, the Catholic University of Ireland was established, without state aid or recognition, by Newman and the Irish Catholic bishops in 1854, but after a brief, though by no means inglorious, career of some quarter of a century, it died of inanition, in fact if not in name, in the late seventies.

Therefore, while the " National " system of primary education, established in 1831, though by no means perfect, had done much to banish illiteracy, and while secondary education had been fairly satisfactorily promoted by the Intermediate Education Act, which came into operation in 1879, the University muddle continued to be as bad as ever, until the dissolution of the Queen's University in 1879 and the establishment of the Royal University of Ireland in 1881. The Queen's University was gone, but the Queen's Colleges x remained as

1 American readers should note the distinction, necessarily made throughout this article, between the term " College" and the term " University."

official or semi-official appanages of the Royal University, under the designation of " approved" colleges.

The new university was from the start open to female as well as to male students, and led the way in that respect in the United Kingdom. Thus, and otherwise, it was meant to fill a larger space in Irish educational life than ever had been possible either to the abolished Queen's University or to the practically defunct Catholic University of Ireland. So, in sober fact, it did, and it must be admitted by its worst opponents that the Royal rendered good service to higher education. It had, however, one defect, out of which much capital was made. It was frequently represented to be a mere examining body, because it conferred its degrees on any one who paid its modest fees and passed its reasonably difficult examinations, while its students could pursue their studies anywhere from China to Peru. The charge was reiterated almost ad nauseam; but those who made it conveniently forgot that, under the fellowship scheme embodied in the original Statutes of the University, it was provided that, " if required by the Senate, the holders [of fellowships] shall give their services in teaching students of the University in some educational institution approved by the Senate, wherein matriculated students of the University are being taught."

In practice five such institutions were approved, namely: University College, Dublin, to which were allotted 15 Fellows; Queen's College, Belfast, 7 ; Queen's College, Cork, 3 ; Queen's College, Galway, 3 ; and Magee College, Londonderry, 1. These 29 Fellows were therefore paid their salaries of £400 a year each, not only for conducting examinations, but also for actual lectures to students. There were, in addition, eight " Medical Fellows," and many Examiners and Assistant Examiners, nearly all of whom were engaged as professors in one v or other of the " approved " colleges.

These conditions would have been satisfactory enough, were it not for the facts (1) that there were large numbers of candidates for the various examinations who, prevented by some reason from attending the classes in the approved colleges, were obliged to study privately or under private tuition, and (2) that, in addition to the "approved" colleges, there were several other colleges sending up students of their own training not only for the examinations and degrees but also for the numerous scholarships, exhibitions, and other prizes offered by the Eoyal University. It was felt, vaguely or acutely according to individual temperament, that both these classes of students were under more or less of a handicap. The case was put that, however fair-minded an examiner might be, it was but natural that he should display at least unconscious bias in favor of candidates or competitors who had been trained and prepared by himself, and who were therefore likely to show the impress of his methods.

For these and other reasons there was unrest and impatience in educational circles ; it was generally recognized that the Irish University question was as yet far from being definitely settled. Agitation for a different and improved system was therefore continuous, and was finally successful, when, in 1908, the Liberal government decided to dissolve the Royal University, and to set up in its place two new universities.

By the Act of Parliament (8 Edw. 7, Chap. 38), which does this, permission is given to the King to found by charter two new universities in Ireland to have their respective seats at Dublin and Belfast. These universities are to be bodies corporate under such names as the King may be pleased to determine. These names have since been given: one is called the National University of Ireland, the other the Queen's University of Belfast. It is with the former that this article is to deal.

Public Documents.

In order to obtain a satisfactory idea of the National University of Ireland and of its Constituent Colleges, there are ten public documents to be studied, namely, the Irish Universities Act, 1908 ; the Charter of the National University of Ireland; the separate Charters of University College, Dublin, University College, Cork, and University College, Galway ;

the Statute for the National University of Ireland ; the separate Statutes for University College, Dublin, University College, Cork, and University College, Galway; and the Report to accompany these four Statutes. In addition, there are, of course, the Charter and the Statutes of the Queen's University of Belfast; but with these two latter documents we are not just now immediately concerned.

Irish Universities Act, 1908.

A perusal of the Act of Parliament, known as the Irish Universities Act, 1908, which establishes the new universities, shows how much its framers were hampered (1) by the existence of the Royal University of Ireland and of the Queen's Colleges at Cork and Galway, and (2) by the question of religion. Two sets of Commissioners were named in the Act, one for Dublin and the other for Belfast. The commissioners were enjoined to draw up schemes for the employment of the existing officers of the Royal University of Ireland and of the existing officers of Queen's College, Belfast, Queen's College, Cork, and Queen's College, Galway. It is further enacted that these schemes shall provide, so far as practicable and expedient, for the offer of equivalent offices, in either one of the new universities or in the new Dublin College which is to be founded, to existing officers of the Royal University of Ireland, and in Queen's College, Cork, and Queen's College, Galway, respectively, to existing officers of those colleges. In case an officer of the Royal University should not be offered an equivalent office, or should accept an office of less emolument than he had previously enjoyed, he is entitled to such compensation out of the university funds as the Commissioners shall determine. It will thus be seen that, considering the limited endowment granted to the new university and to its constituent colleges, the Commissioners had the strongest possible financial reasons for employing the former office-holders. To do otherwise would be to make an undue drain on exiguous resources in order to provide pensions or lump-sum compensation for those who might be injuriously affected by the loss or diminution of their offices. ]STo one will cavil at the provision thus made for the existing office-holders; on the contrary, to ignore their past services and their present claims would be most unjust, for many of them are distinguished scholars and specialists in their own departments, and are therefore capable of doing excellent work for the infant institution. The point here sought to be established is that, on account of money considerations, it is evident that the Commissioners were not as unrestricted and unhampered in their selection of professors, lecturers, and other officers as if there were no body of men in existence with legal or equitable claims on their consideration. As a matter of fact, I understand that, with scarcely an exception, the appointments actually made from among existing office-holders have given general satisfaction.

On the question of religion an even more difficult problem presented itself to the framers of the Act. This has been for years one of the great stumbling blocks in the way of the solution of the Irish university problem. The great majority of the people of Ireland is Catholic, but there is a considerable minority made up of members of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Presbyterians, Methodists, and other dissenting sects. Each of those bodies had strong claims for recognition, and the claims were necessarily conflicting; and, as it was impossible on the one hand to reconcile them or on the other to establish in the twentieth century denominational universities for each religion and sect, those responsible for the Act cut the Gordian knot by boldly declaring for undenominational institutions. So full, explicit, and emphatic is the section dealing with this point that it deserves to be quoted in full : —

" 3. — (1) No test whatever of religious belief shall be imposed on any person as a condition of his becoming or continuing to be a professor, lecturer, fellow, scholar, exhibitioner, graduate, or student of, or of his holding any office or emolument or exercising any privilege in, either of the two new universities, or any constituent college; nor in connection with either of those universities or any such constituent college shall any preference be given to or advantage be withheld from any person on the ground of religious belief.

" (2) Every professor upon entering into office shall sign a declaration in a form approved by the Commissioners jointly under this Act, securing the respectful treatment of the religious opinions of any of his class.

" (3) Nothing in this section shall apply to any professor of or lecturer in theology or divinity; provided that no test of religious belief shall be imposed by the governing body of either of the two new universities or any constituent college on any such professor or lecturer as a condition of his appointment or recognition by the governing body as such professor or lecturer."

Section Y, which deals with financial provisions and purchase of land, returns to this question so as to make it abundantly plain that public money must not be used for any form of theological teaching or religious instruction. Sub-section (4) of Section Y reads as follows: —

" (4) Any sums paid under this section shall be applied by the governing body of the university or college, as the case may be, in accordance with their charter or statutes, but no such sum shall be applied for the provision or maintenance of any church, chapel, or other place of religious worship or observance, or for the provision or maintenance of any theological or religious teaching or study:

" Provided that nothing in this provision shall prevent the recognition by the governing body of the university of any professor of or lecturer in theology or divinity as a professor of the university so long as the professorship is founded and maintained entirely by means of private benefaction, or the use of any building belonging to the university or college for any teaching given by such professor, or for any other religious teaching no part of the cost of which is defrayed out of public funds. But no student shall be compelled to attend any such theological teaching, or religious instruction, and no professor of or lecturer in theology and divinity shall be eligible for membership of the General Board of Studies or of any Faculty other than the Faculty of Theology."

Finally, in Section 10, which allows the Intermediate Education Board for Ireland and county councils and borough councils to assist -students by means of exhibitions, scholarships, bursaries, payment of fees, or otherwise, there is a proviso that in no case shall any grant under the section be subject to or conditional upon any religious qualification or be devoted to any religious purpose.

Erom all the foregoing it will be seen that the State takes every precaution to prevent itself from being identified with any form of sectarianism, but at the same time ensures that the term " godless " cannot be truthfully applied to any of the new institutions, since theological teaching and religious instruction may be given at private cost, provided that attendance of students at such teaching or instruction is to be entirely voluntary.

I have taken the time and the trouble to make this matter particularly clear, because it seems to me that in Catholic circles in this country there is considerable misapprehension as to the character of the new university. In daily conversation and by letters from different parts of the Union I have been asked to explain this or that point in connection with " the new Catholic University of Ireland." When I showed that it was not a Catholic, but an undenominational IsTational University, that has been established, my viva voce and correspondence questioners invariably expressed surprise, some of them with characteristic American frankness. I hope that what I have now written will remove any existing doubt.

While I am on this question of religion, it may be opportune to say that, among Catholics of my own race, laymen as well as priests, on this side of the Atlantic, who, having a great love for, and interest in, Ireland and everything Irish, have endeavored to keep themselves informed of what was being done, I have heard many expressions of misgiving as to the future effect, on the faith and morals of the youth of Ireland, of the teaching of an institution into which religion, if it enters at all, can enter only as a side issue, and not, as it rightfully should, as the head and front of the whole curriculum of studies. It has been further represented to me that the conditions of the tenure of a professorship make the professor virtually independent of every one; that he can teach what he pleases as long as he treats respectfully " the religious opinions of any of his class ; " and that, in the departments of History and Philosophy in particular, it is quite possible for a professor, while keeping within the strict letter of his declaration, insidiously to inculcate doctrines subversive of Catholicity and even of Christianity.

My reply is that, if the neAV university scheme is approved by the Irish Catholic hierarchy, it ought to satisfy others. It is the duty of the Irish bishops — and they may be relied on to discharge it — to see that the spiritual interests of the university students, male and female, who belong to their flocks, shall not suffer. The means to secure this end will be devised by them. A beginning has been already made in the establishment of hostels, with episcopal sanction, under the direction of religious orders of men and women, for the accommodation of extern students. I understand, too, that students' sodalities have been already formed, or are in process of formation. On this score I think there need be no misgivings.

With regard to the question of teaching, there may be some danger ; but I think it is rather theoretical than real. The fears which I heard expressed appear to be based on imperfect information. The occupants of chairs will not be so independent as some of my American friends apparently believe. The first appointments to Professorships and Lectureships in the National University and its Constituent Colleges are vested in the Dublin Commissioners, and, with certain exceptions provided in the Act, are to last for seven years or earlier death or disability of the appointee. After the functions of the Commissioners determine, the Senate of the University is to have power to appoint to all vacant Professorships and Lectureships in the University, and, subject to appeal to the King, who is the Visitor of the University, to remove the holders of such offices. In the University Senate, also, will repose the right to appoint, and, subject to similar appeal, to remove the Professors and

Lecturers of the Constituent Colleges. Both during and after the seven-year period named above, it is incumbent on the President of each constituent college to advise, remonstrate with, and admonish any Professor or Lecturer who is neglectful of his duties, or is guilty of any dereliction or breach of duty, and, if his representations are disregarded, to call the attention of the Governing Body of the College to the conduct of the offender. 2 Upon due cause shown by the Governing Body of the College, the Senate of the University may, subject as before to an appeal to the King, remove any Professor or Lecturer from his office.

There would thus appear to be efficient checks on any erratic tendency on the part of either University or College Professors and Lecturers. But, aside from these, there are other safeguards. I would, in the first place, lay emphasis on the virile

8 A distinction is made in the Statutes between the duties and powers of the President of University College, Dublin, on the one hand, in this respect, and those of the Presidents of University College, Cork, and University College, Galway, on the other. Section 14 of Chapter iv of all three Statutes is identically the same, reading thus: "He shall advise and remonstrate with any Professor, Lecturer, or Office-bearer of the College, whenever it shall come to his knowledge that such Professor, Lecturer, or Office-bearer has been neglectful of his duties." Section 15 of the same chapter in the Statutes for University College, Cork, and University College, Galway, runs thus for both :

"Should any Professor, Lecturer, or Office-bearer of the College prove inattentive to the advice and remonstrance of the President, the President shall, after giving such Professor, Lecturer, or Office-bearer notice of his intention, and furnishing him with a copy of the official statement he proposes to make of the case, call the attention of the Governing Body to the conduct of such Professor, Lecturer, or Office-bearer."

The corresponding section in the Statute for University College, Dublin, varies somewhat from the foregoing. Here it is :

"Should any Professor, Lecturer, or Office-bearer be guilty, in the opinion of the President, of any dereliction or breach of duty, it shall be the duty of the President to admonish him, and in the event of the Professor, Lecturer, or Office-bearer disregarding such admonition, the President shall, after giving such Professor, Lecturer, or Office-bearer notice of his intention, and furnishing him with a copy of the official statement he proposes to make of the case, call the attention of the Govering Body to the conduct of such Professor or Office-bearer."

I do not know the reason for this distinction. It may of course, be accidental ; but it is more likely to be deliberate and for cause. While I do not consider it important enough to affect the argument in the text, I think it right at the same time to point it out.

Catholic spirit of the Irish race. Corruptio optimi pessima, it is true; but the faith of the Irish people, fostered by persecution and watered with the blood of martyrs, is a plant of sturdy growth in root and branch, and it will not easily be eradicated or blighted to decay. Secondly, concerning the first appointments, I would instance those that have actually been made to the " dangerous " chairs. ISTo unsound doctrines are likely to be preached by Mr. Magennis in Dublin or Mr. Merriman in Cork, by Dr. Cronin, who is a secular priest, by Father Finlay, who is a Jesuit, or by Dr. Fitzgibbon, who is a Franciscan. Lastly, I would again point to the ever-watchful care which the Irish Catholic bishops give to the religious interests of their spiritual children. If any heresy or false teaching is promulgated, the bishops will be quick to hear of it and prompt to take measures to stamp out the practice. There are many ways, direct and indirect, in which they could make their protest effective. In the extremely unlikely contingency of all else failing, they would have the final right to forbid attendance on lectures that tend to sap faith or morals. How the whole scheme will work out, time and experience alone can tell ; but I, for one, take no pessimistic view.

Separation of Secondary from University Education.

Permission is given in the Act to the King to found by charter a new college at Dublin and either to alter the existing charters of Queen's College, Cork, and Queen's College, Galway, or to grant new charters in lieu thereof. These three colleges, to be known in future as University Colleges, are to be the Constituent Colleges of the National University. In addition, it is provided that the National University may give to its matriculated students the right to pursue their studies for its examinations, prizes, and degrees, in any other " recognized" college in Ireland. Such recognition shall be accorded either on the representation of one of the Constituent Colleges or subject to the consent of all three, and no such recognition shall be granted to any college which prepares students for intermediate or other school examinations or gives education of an intermediate or secondary kind, or unless the University is satisfied as to the general character and financial position of the college as a whole, the adequacy in numbers and qualifications of its teaching staff, the University standard of the teaching, the adequate provision of laboratories and other appliances necessary for giving instruction in the subjects in respect of which recognition is contemplated, the conditions as to age and attainments on which students are admitted, the number of students proceeding or likely to proceed to a University degree, and the relations of the college to any other University. (Charter of the National University of Ireland, Article III). It does not seem probable that many Irish colleges will be thus recognized, for at present there are very few in existence that could comply with all the requirements here set forth. The principal bar will be the fact that most colleges, whether for boys or girls, which up to the present have been sending up their students for university examinations, have also an intermediate department and some of them a primary one, and the results fees paid to such colleges for those of their students who are successful at the examinations of the Intermediate Education Board form a strong financial inducement to hold on to the latter system. Thus, as the Act and the Charter doubtless contemplate, a long-needed scholastic reform will be effected in Ireland by the separation and co-ordination of secondary and university education. There are some colleges to which recognition can scarcely be denied, if they seek it, and new ones may spring into existence to meet exigencies ; but the principle will not be thereby affected.

Endowments.

The state aid given to the National University of Ireland and its constituent colleges is threefold, consisting of (1) a bulk sum for purchasing lands and providing or improving the necessary buildings and equipment; (2) an annual grant; and

(3) existing buildings and property. The bulk sum so provided for the new University and for the new University College at Dublin, jointly, is £150,000 ; for University College, Cork, £14,000; and for University College, Galway, £6,000. The annual grant to the National University is £10,000 ; to University College, Dublin, £32,000; to University College, Cork, £20,000; and to University College, Galway, £12,000. The buildings of the Royal University of Ireland, together with the equipment and appurtenances thereof, except such of said buildings, if any, as may be appropriated to University College, Dublin, are to be transferred to the National University, which also gets any other real or personal property of the Royal University, except, again, such portion of said property, if any, as may be assigned to University College, Dublin. Any buildings or property held by the Commissioners of Public Works in Ireland for the purpose of Queen's College, Cork, and Queen's College, Galway, shall, by virtue of the Act, become vested in University College, Cork, and University College, Galway, respectively.

In addition to the foregoing, Section 8 of the Act provides that " the surplus of the fee fund mentioned in subsection two of section one hundred and twenty-two of the Local Government (Ireland) Act, 1898, shall, instead of being paid and applied as directed by that subsection, be paid and applied for such of the purposes of either of the new universities or any of the constituent colleges of the new university having its seat at Dublin as the Lord Lieutenant in Council may direct." Unfortunately, I have at present no means of ascertaining what the amount of the surplus here named is, or of how it is proposed to apply it. It may be a substantial amount, or it may be a negligible quantity. That it is the latter I am inclined to infer from the Report of the Dublin Commissioners which accompanies the statutes drawn up by them for the National University and each. of the three constituent colleges. After stating that the main portion of the income of the National University consists of that sum of £10,000 a year which I have already mentioned, the report proceeds as follows: —

102 CATEOLW UNIVERSITY BULLETIN

" The other items of Income of the University will consist of the Fees received from Students, and of the annual produce of such capital sum as shall accrue to the University out of the property of the Royal University of Ireland, when provision shall have been made for the' payment of the Pensions and of such capital sums as may be awarded as the Compensation to which the property ,is liable under the provisions of the Act."

Here, it will be seen, there is no reference to the surplus of the fee fund mentioned in Section 8 of the Act, so that I am forced to the conclusion that the annual income of the university is to consist solely of £10,000, plus fees and whatever sum the property of the Royal University, handed over to the National University, may annually produce. I hope, however, that in this matter I am mistaken.

Insufficiency of Endowment.

The state grant is generally looked upon as being in most respects insufficient. Thus, the report from which I have already quoted sets out that the Commissioners were unable to make provision for the appointment of Professors and Lecturers in the National University, because they were not satisfied of the sufficiency of the funds of the University to meet the stipends to be attached to those Professorships. They had to content themselves with making provision for the appointment of Professors, Lecturers, and other Officers in the constituent colleges. And even here they found themselves cabined, cribbed, and confined owing to the inadequacy of the grant. With regard to University College, Galway, in particular, they found themselves in a very tight corner. What the report has to say on this subject is so illustrative of the meagerness of the financial provision, and so interesting in other respects as showing certain lines of policy approved by the Commissioners and certain other lines which they condemn, that I make no apology for setting it down here in full: —

"As to University College, Galway, we desire to make it plain, in the most unmistakable manner, that the Scheme proposed in the Statute for that College does not in any degree conform to our conception of even a passable equipment for a Constituent College of the University. It represents merely a makeshift which we have found to be at the moment practicable; and since the salaries which are to be offered under it to those Professors of the College who are Fellows of the Royal University do not amount to their present incomes, it is made practicable only by throwing upon the University Funds a charge of some hundreds of pounds annually, by way of compensation, and thus hampering the University in its proper functions.