An introduction to the study of philosophy. With an outline treatise on logic

Introduction

THE STUDY

PHILOSOPHY.

OUTLIKE TREATISE

LOGIC.

BY

REV. E. V.'GEKHART, D.D.,

PRESIDENT OF FRANKHN AND MARSHALL COLLEGE.

I am the Truth.— Christ.

PHILADELPHIA: LINDSAY & BLAKISTON.

WASHINGTOH

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

19 St. James Street.

TO

THE MEMORY

OP

FKEDERICK AUGUSTUS RAUCH,

WHO FIRST LED THE AUTHOR INTO THE REGIONS OF THOUGHT

IS DEDICATED,

IN TOKEN OF A PUPIL'S

Preface

It has been generally assumed by leading philosophers that there is no neecessary internal connection between sound metaphysical speculation and the person of Jesus Christ. Metaphysics in general, or any particular system of philosophy, and the Christian Religion, are, it is held, distinct and different spheres of thought, and are, in consequence, not determined by a common principle, though, like the circumferences of contiguous circles, they touch and may even intersect each other. Were Christ but a single individual, and the Christian Religion co-ordinate with any of the other religions of the world, there would be propriety in the assumption. But if Christ be the generic man as well as a single individual ; if He possess all the attributes, original wants and tendencies of perfect humanity ; if besides He be the real union of the human with the divine nature ; and if as such He be the all-pervading principle of a system of religion which is absolute ; — then Christianity as a whole must answer to every distinctive attribute of man, to the deepest tendencies of the reason, and to every law of thought j and Christ must, at the same time, be the principle of every form of speculation or

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VI PREFACE.

every system of thought that really conforms to, and satisfies, the demands of the reason. For it would involve a positive contradiction, to presume that different systems of truth, which meet the same general conditions of the human mind, can originate in mutually exclusive principles.

To believe in Christ as the Word made flesh and in Christianity as the absolute world-religion, and to hold this belief with logical consistency, requires us to assume, therefore, that true philosophy and Christianity are not to be divorced, but are internally and necessarily connected. Though distinct systems, the one starting with the intuitive beliefs of the reason, and proceeding according to the subjective laws of thought, the other starting with a fact of supernatural revelation and then unfolding itself from it as from a germ, according to the objective law of organic growth, they are nevertheless not separable much less contradictory ; but both presuppose the same fundamental necessity in human nature, the necessity to believe and to know involved in the relation of subject and object, and both follow and embody the same order or method in the process of development. The method of thinking which determines every branch of true philosophy corresponds to the objective order of life unfolded iu Christianity. And as Christ is the principle of Christianity, it follows that He is Himself the highest concrete form of the method of thinking which must underlie and pervade every process of legitimate ratiocination.

PREFACE. Vll

Whilst the author has no doubt in his own mind of the truth of the general principle here laid down, it is with great diffidence that he submits a short Introduction to Philosophy which is based upon it; for he is fully alive to the difficulties involved in the solution of the problems that have arisen at every step of his progress. Indeed at his own instance he would scarcely have ventured upon the work. In undertaking it, he was influenced, in a great measure, by the judgment of his friend, Doctor Schaff. Aware of my intention to publish an Outline Treatise on Logic, he, at different times, suggested to me to write an Introduction to this Science, or to the study of philosophy in general. To these suggestions was added the want of a suitable text-book for this department of a college course, the sense of which I had long felt in my experience as a Teacher j particularly the want of a book that would proceed consistently on the assumption of an inward harmony between logical thinking or legitimate metaphysical disquisition and the Keligion of Jesus Christ. Under these circumstances, I have been led to attempt a concise discussion of the general subject. Though I do not flatter myself that all the questions preliminary to the study of the various branches of philosophy have been discussed, or that any of them have been answered to the entire satisfaction of scholars, yet the work is an earnest inquiry into the relation of Christ to scientific thinking ; and under this view it is offered as an humble contribution to the cause of Christian philosophy.

Vlll PREFACE.

As the work is designed primarily for Colleges, I have been guided in the preparation of it, as regards the order of thought and external plan, mainly by my judgment of the wants of students. This design, however, will not interfere with its use by those generally who take an interest in philosophic studies. As regards manner, it was my only aim to write in a simple, compact, and perspicuous style. The needless use of technical terms has been avoided. In using them when necessary, the same sense has, as nearly as possible, always been attached to them.

My idea of an Introduction adapted to the wants of students did not allow me to refer, in the course of discussion, except when it was unavoidable, to conflicting opinions and theories. To do so properly would have given it a polemical cast to a degree that, in my judgment, would not be either desirable or advantageous. A positive and direct method of treatment is preferable. If the positions, the train of reasoning, and the conclusions be true, they will find access to the mind of the reader in virtue of their own self-authenticating power. My silence should, therefore, not be construed into a want of due respect for, or a want of a sense of great indebtedness to the profound thinkers who have started with different principles and elaborated different theories.

The Outline Treatise on Logic is a free, and somewhat amplified, translation of a German work by Dr. Beck, originally published in Stuttgart, in 1845. As I lay claim only to a patient endeavor to reproduce the original under

PREFACE. IX

an English form, it will be no violation of modesty to say a few words touching its merits.

The design of Dr. Beck was to prepare an Outline Treatise as a text-book, which should include such matter only as it is necessary for a student in a Gymnasium or College to study, and to pursue such a method in elaborating the material as would itself discipline the mind to logical thinking. The book testifies to his eminent success. Beginning with certain fundamental principles, he advances from them step by step, making each position depend logically on that which has preceded it, and evolves a complete system that excludes nothing which the successful learner must know, and includes nothing which he can fail to know without interfering with a clear comprehension of the whole. The Treatise is profound, scientific, comprehensive, and brief; and, therefore, possesses rare value as a text-book. For the value of a text-book, especially in philosophy, depends not so much upon the amount of matter which it contains, as upon being so constructed that the student is required to think, to think closely and systematically, and to remember accurately, in order to succeed at all in mastering the subject. Pursuing the study of Logic in this way his mind passes through a process of efficient logical training whilst acquiring a knowledge of the Science.

A word or two in regard to its brevity. — Whilst a good text-book is the basis of instruction and an important aid to both Pupil and Teacher, it is not the exclusive, nor yet the principal, agent in the work of thorough education.

X PREFACE.

That is to be found in the Teacher himself. The classroom is not the place where he is to ascertain simply what the class has learned, though this is an important part of his duty — for education does not consist in gathering and treasuring up the thoughts of others ; — but it is the place particularly of instruction and mental discipline, where the Teacher should discuss, unfold, and illustrate the subject of study in his own way ; for thus most effectually may he awaken the interest of his pupils, incite them to earnest, independent thought, and draw out and mould all the powers of the mind. This constitutes the chief work of an educator. To perform it well, he needs a text-book that will assist him in teaching, require the pupil to think and to learn, and at the same time facilitate the exercises of recitation. The unusual brevity combined with the comprehensiveness of this Treatise is therefore to be regarded not as a great deficiency, but as one of its peculiar merits. The abstruse discussions which it omits, especially the numerous subtle modifications of the syllogistic formula, it is well for the Teacher or more mature scholar to be familiar with, but they are remote from the immediate and practical wants of the learner.

In relation to Whateley's Logic and other works of kindred character, it may be proper to say, that I do not ignore nor depreciate their merits ; but as they differ on the points just mentioned from Dr. Beck's Treatise, they do not render the publication of it in the English language superfluous.

PREFACE. XI

With no desire but to aid in advancing the interests of Science and Religion, I submit this volume to my fellowlaborers in the work of higher education, and to the scientific community in general, in the hope that, in some measure at least, it may be adapted to promote the end which it has in view.

E. V. G.

CONTENTS,

Introduction To The Study Of Philosophy

PAGE

§ 1. Preliminary View of the General Subject, . . 27

Chapter I. The Reason

I 2. The Reason denned, 31

§ 3. The Reason an Organic Entity, ... 32

§ 4. The Relation of the Reason to the Body, . . 34

g 5. The Relation of the Reason to God, . . 37

I 6. The Office of the Reason, . . . .40

§ 7. The Reason believes, .... 42

§ 8. The Activity of the Reason, . . . .46

§ 9. The Reason knows, .... 48

Chapter II. Consciousness

1 10. The Objects of the Reason, . . . .52 g 11. The Consciousness of Self, or Self-Consciousness, 54 §12. The Consciousness of the World, or World-Consciousness, ..... 57

2 13. The Consciousness of God, or God-Consciousness, . 62

XIV CONTENTS.

PAGE

g 14. The Necessity and Unity of Consciousness, . 65

£15. The Relation of Faith to Consciousness, . . 68

Chapter III. The Nature Of Philosophy

$16. The Conception of Philosophy, . . .72

\ 1Y. The Form of Philosophy, ... 73

\ 18. The Matter of Philosophy, . . . .74

The Necessity of Being, ... 75

The Generality of Being, . . .76

§ 19. The Matter of Philosophy, arising under a threefold

The First Inquiry, corresponding to Conception, . . . . .78

The Second Inquiry, corresponding to Judgment, . . . . .79

The Third Inquiry, corresponding to Reasoning, . . . 81 $ 20. Correspondence of the Form to the Matter of Philosophy, . . . . . .83

I 21. The Nature of Philosophy denned, . . 84

§22. Recapitulation, . . . . .86

Chapter IV. A True System Of Philosophy

I 23. The Conditions of true Philosophy, . . .88

Section I. The Principle Of Philosophy And The Position Of The Reason

§ 24. What is the First Principle of Philosophy ? .90

I 25. What is the Relative Position of the Reason? . 91

CONTENTS. XV

FAOE

26. The first two Conditions in their Relation to Philo-

27. The Relation of Philosophy to Supernatural Reve-

28. Recapitulation of the Argument, . . .99

Section II

THE RELATION OF THE REASON TO THE OUTER WORLD, OR OF SUBJECT AND OBJECT.

29. Fourfold Solution of the Philosophical Problem,

Realism, ....

Idealism, ....

Absolutism, ....

Dualism, ....

30. Modifications of the Four Systems,

31. Criticism of the Four Systems,

32. Correspondence of Christology to Philosophy, .

33. Fourfold Solution of the Christological Problem,

Ebionism, ....

Gnosticism, ....

Eutycheanism, ....

Nestorianism,

34. The Philosophical and Christological Systems com

pared, ....

Realism and Ebionism, .

Idealism and Gnosticism, Absolutism and Eutycheanism, .

Dualism and Nestorianism, .

35. Conditions of the True Solution,

Conditions of the Philosophical Problem, Conditions of the Christological Problem, The two Series compared and resolved,

36. The True Solution of the Problem,

Solution of the Christological Problem,

XVI CONTENTS.

PAGB

§ 37. Solution of the Problem illustrated, . . 134

$ 38. Conclusion of the Whole Argument, . . 137

Chapter V. Logic And Its Relations

. 141 SECTION I.

THE OBJECT OF LOGIC.

40. The Laws of Thinking, ... 142

41. Laws of Thinking in their Relation to the Reason

illustrated, ..... 144

42. The Science of Logic denned, . . .148

Science of the Generic Form of Thinking, 149 Science of Deductive Reasoning, . 152

SECTION II.

RELATIONS OF LOGIC.

43. Relation of Logic to Philosophy, . . 154

Logic the Plastic Power, . . . 155

Logic the Subjective Condition, . 156

Logic an Essential Element, . .156

44. Province of Logic in Relation to Philosophy, . 157

1. Necessity of a Fundamental Judgment, . 158

2. Necessity and Order of a Process of Reason-

3. Necessity of a Conclusion, . . 161

45. The Harmony of Logic and True Philosophy, . 166

46. Relation of Logic to the Sciences, . . 170

True Relation, . . . .173

False Relation, .... 175

True Relation illustrated, . . .177

47. Relation of Logic to Theology, . . . 178

CONTENTS. XV11

PAGE

In what sense Theology transcends Logic, . 179 In what sense Theology does not transcend

Logic, ....

Theology Logical in its Principle, Theology Logical in its Method and Con

elusions, ....

General Conditions of True Theology,

48. Eelation of Logic to Language,

Philosophy of Language, Objective Logic and Language, Subjective Logic and Language,

49. The Necessity of the Science of Logic,

Grounded in Moral Evil, or Sin, Grounded in the Nature of the Reason,

50. The Study of Logic,

A Logical System of Logic,

The Logical Study of a Logical System,

182 184

AN OUTLINE TREATISE ON LOGIC.

INTRODUCTION".

I 1. Logic, 213

I 2. The Object of Logic, .... 213

I 3. Pure and Applied Logic, . . . .214

\ 4. The End of Logic, . . . . 215

I 5. The Relative Position of Logic, . • .216

Part First. The Doctrine Of Elements

XV111 CONTENTS.

Chapter I. The Fundamental Laws Of Thinking

PAGE

I 8. The Laws of Thinking, . . . 220

I 9. The Law of Identity, . . . .220

\ 10. The Law of Contradiction, . . . 222

I 11. The Law of the Excluded Third, . . .222

\ 12. The Law of the Rational Ground, . . 223

Chapter II. Conceptions

§ 13. Definition of a Conception, . . . 225

SECTION I.

A CONCEPTION AS IT IS IN ITSELF.

\ 14. A Conception in General, . . . .226

1. The Contents of a Conception.

§ 15. Contents of a Conception defined, . . . 226

\ 16. Essential and Accidental Attributes, . . 227

£ 17. Simple and Compound Conceptions, . . 228

2. The Extent of a Conception.

\ 18. Extent of a Conception defined, . . 229

§ 19. Genus, Species, and Individual, . . . 229

3. Comparison of the Contents and Extent of a Conception.

I 20. The Reciprocal Relation, ... 230

| 21. Variation in the Extent of a Conception, . . 231

\ 22. Addendum. — Distinctness and Accuracy, . 232

SECTION II.

COMPARISON OF CONCEPTIONS.

\ 23. Points of Comparison, .... 233

CONTENTS. XIX

PAGE

1. Identity and Non-Identity.

$ 24. Identical Conceptions, .... 233

$25. Non-Identical Conceptions. — Affinity and Difference, 234

\ 27. Contradictory and Contrary Opposition, . 236

3. Subordination and Go-ordination.

\ 28-9. Subordinate Conceptions, . . 238

$ 30. Co-ordinate Conceptions, . . . 238

| 31. Art of .Classification, .... 240

Chapter III. Judgments

SECTION I.

A JUDGMENT AS IT IS IN ITS OWN NATURE.

$ 33. Definition of a Judgment, .... 241

1. Quality.

I 34. The Quality of Judgments, . . . 242

£ 35. A Judgment Affirmative or Negative, . . 243

2. Quantity.

I 36-7. The Quantity of Judgments, . . 244

3. Relation.

g 38. The Relation of Judgments, . . .246

$39. Categorical Judgments, . . . . 246

$ 40. Hypothetical Judgments, .... 247

§ 41. Disjunctive Judgments, . . . 248

§ 42. Addendum. — Partitive Judgments, . . . 250

XX CONTENTS.

4. Modality.

* PAGE

43. The Modality of Judgments, . . .251

44. Problematical, Assertory, and Apodictical Judg-

SECTION II.

COMPARISON OF JUDGMENTS.

§ 45. Comparison of Judgments, . . . 253

1. Identity and Difference.

\ 46. Identical Judgments, .... 253

§ 47. Different Judgments, .... 254

$ 48. Agreement and Opposition, . . . 255 $ 49. Contradictory Opposition, . . . 255 g 50. Contrary Opposition, .... 256 § 51. Inferences from Contradictory and Contrary Opposition, . . - . . . 257 \ 52. Subcontraries, ..... 258

3. Co-ordination and Subordination.

\ 53. Co-ordination and Subordination, . . . 259

4. Transposition.

$ 56. Contraposition, . . . . . 263

| 57. Addendum. — Propositions, .... 263

Chapter IV. Reasoning, Or The Syllogism

CONTENTS. XXI SECTION I.

ESSENTIAL NATURE OF REASONING.

TAQE

\ 59. The Principle of Reasoning) . . . 267

§ 60-1. Three Judgments in Reasoning, . . 267

. 268

SECTION II.

FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAE OF REASONING.

I 63-4. Formulae of Reasoning, . . . 269

\ 67. The Principle of Categorical Reasoning, . 272 \ 68. The First Particular Rule, . . . .273

I 69. The Second Rule, . . . . 274

I 70. The Third Rule, 275

g 71. The Fourth Rule, . . . . 276

§ 72. The Fifth Rule, 277

1 73. The Figures of a Syllogism, ... 278

2. Hypothetical Reasoning.

§ 74-5. The Law of Hypothetical Reasoning, . . 280

§ 76-7. Two Modes of Hypothetical Reasoning, . 281

§ 78. A Hypothetical Syllogism, pure or mixed, . . 283

3. Disjunctive Reasoning.

2 79. A Disjunctive Syllogism, . . . .284 § 80. Two Modes of Disjunctive Reasoning, . . 285 \ 81. Rules for Disjunctive Reasoning, . . . 286 § 82. The Validity of Disjunctive Reasoning, . 286 § 83. Addenda. — 1. Partitive Reasoning, . .287 I 84. 2. The Dilemma, . . . 288 I 85. A Valid Dilemma, ..... 289

XX11 CONTENTS.

Section III. Verbal Expression Of Reasoning

I 86. The Syllogism, ....

PAGE

I 87. Complete Simple Syllogism, . . .292

\ 88. Incomplete Simple Syllogism, . . . 293

\ 90. Contracted Syllogism, .... 294 \ 91. Immediate Syllogisms, .... 295

\ 92-3. Compound Syllogisms, Complete or Incomplete, 298

\ 94. The Syllogistic Series, . . . .299

\ 95. Prosyllogism and Episyllogism, . • . 299

\ 96. Progressive and Retrogressive Series, . . 300

\ 97. Incomplete Compound Syllogisms, . . 302 g 99. Analytical Sorites, .... 303

100. Synthetical Sorites, . " . . .304

101. Hypothetical Sorites, .... 305

102. The Epichirema, . . . . .306

Part Second. The Doctrine Of Method

I 105. External and Internal Union, . . . 310

\ 106. The Logical Method, . . . .310

Contents

XXlll

109. Analysis and Synthesis,

110. System an Organic Unity,

111. Construction of a System,

112. Office of Method, .

PAGE

312 313 314 315

Chapter I. Of Definition

§ 113. Logical Definition,

§ 114. Office of Definition,

§ 115. Fundamental Principle of Definition,

§ 116. First Rule for Definition, .

§117. Proof of a Correct Definition,

§118. The Second Rule, .

§119. The Third Rule,

§ 120. The Fourth Rule, .

§ 121. Nominal and Verbal Definition,

§ 122. Analytical and Genetic Definition,

§ 123. Thorough and Complete Definition,

& 124. Description. — Explanation. — Location,

OF DIVISION.

125-6. Logical Division,

127. Office of Logical Division,

128-9. Elements of Logical Division,

130. Collateral Divisions,

131. Subdivisions,

132. Fundamental Division,

133. Order of Division,

134. First Rule for Division,

135. Second Rule,

XXIV

CONTENTS.

I 138. Fifth Rule,

§ 139. Partition and Nominal Division,

PAOE

Chapter III

140-1. Nature and Necessity of Proof, .

. 340

142. Form of Proof,

143. Elements of Proof,

. 342

144. Validity of Proof,

145. The Order of Proof,

. 344

146. Direct and Indirect Proof,

147. Indirect or Apagogical Proof,

. 346

148. Use of Apagogical Proof,

149. Objective and Subjective Proof, .

. 348

150. Probability, ....

. 350

152. Induction, ....

153. Analogy and Induction, . .

. 353

154. First Rule for Argumentation,

155. Second Rule,

. 355

. 356

158. Fifth Rule, ....

159. Fallacies, ....

. 358

AN INTRODUCTION

STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY.

Introduction To Philosophy

§1. •

PRELIMINARY VIEW OF THE GENERAL SUBJECT.

Philosophy, according to the etymology of the word, is the love of wisdom — the natural tendency of the human mind to know the truth. This tendency awakes spontaneously, is active with greater or less intensive force in every age of the world, and leads from time to time to certain definite results. These form a succession of systems of received truth. Some of them are based the one upon the other, each succeeding system being a more full development or a different application of the same method of thinking. Others are in conflict, and mutually destructive. Yet all of them, whether contradictory or harmonious, are in some measure in affinity ; for they possess

28 INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY.

certain essential elements in common. They represent the earnest efforts of the reason to satisfy its inmost longings — its longings to know the varied objects arresting its attention, in their ground, in their mode of existence, and in all their connections. They are therefore to be regarded each as a part of a continuous process going on in the sphere of thought. The general result of this process at any given period is philosophy, namely, that which the reason has wrought out and holds for truth ; the word being used to express both the cause and the effect — the tendency to know the truth, and scientific knowledge itself.

The organ of philosophy is the reason. The reason philosophizes. It assumes a point of observation, and then endeavors to solve the problems of philosophy in the light of its position and according to the laws of thought. The character of the inquiry is thus determined by the reason itself, as well as by the objects whose nature it investigates. "What is the reason ? what is the right point of observation ? and what are the laws of thought according to which an inquiry must be conducted? are, therefore, questions of fundamental importance. The answer

PRELIMINARY VIEW OF THE GENERAL SUBJECT. 29

possesses the force of a plastic power that moulds the whole structure of philosophy.

The reason does not only inquire into the nature of the objects by which it is surrounded. It inquires also into itself — into its own nature, susceptibilities, powers, and relations. This gives rise to the Science of the Soul, or Psychology. And it inquires into its fundamental operations and laws of thought. This gives rise to the Science of Logic. Philosophy includes Logic; the one is the general, the other the particular ; the one the trunk, the other a branch. Hence, a system of Logic is always connected with some corresponding system of philosophy, which exerts upon it a determining influence.

As the reason is the organ of philosophy, a correct view of the reason conditions a correct view of the nature of philosophy ; and as philosophy embraces logic, a sound philosophy is in order to a true conception of logic — of its nature, peculiar province, and necessary relations.

An Introduction to the study of Logic and Philosophy does not construct a particular system either of the one or of the other, but it unfolds and establishes the general principles upon which a true system of both may be constructed. It

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30 INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY.

designs to lead the earnest inquirer into the boundless field of thought, to give him the true point of observation, make him acquainted with the different classes of objects that lie within the compass of his vision, point out the errors to which he is exposed, and imbue him with a sound method of thinking, in order that he may be prepared to carry forward independent researches, and come into possession of a scientific knowledge of truth as regards both the object and the subject of thought.

The relation of the reason to philosophy and of philosophy to logic, suggests the natural order of discussion. The whole subject may accordingly be treated in five chapters, as follows : 1. The Reason ; 2. Consciousness ; 3. The Nature of Philosophy ; 4. A True System of Philosophy ; and 5. Logic and its Kelations.