An English grammar for the higher grades in grammar schools

Front matter

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Chap. Copyright No..._.

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Preface

This adaptation of Whitney's " Essentials of English Grammar'' is designed to furnish a simple and practical text-book for pupils who are not of sufficient maturity to use with advantage the original work. To this end, a new book has been made with topical arrangement, abundant exercises of a more elementary style, and a generally simplified treatment.

While the intention has been to embody all the excellent features of the " Essentials," it has sometimes seemed best to sacrifice inductive development of a subject to clearness and conciseness of expression, since it is presupposed that the classes for whom this book is intended have already had some elementary introduction to the study of English.

It should be understood that, in using the book, the order of chapters is not, of necessity, to be strictly followed. For instance, the chapter on "Infinitives and Participles " may be studied, as a whole or in part, directly after the same subject, as treated in the chapter on " Verbs." Again, the analysis of senill

IV PREFACE.

tences may and should be studied in connection with the parsing of exercises in the early chapters of the book.

It should be added that the " Essentials " will continue to be published for the use of those who desire a book of its grade.

December, 1891.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Introduction : Language and Grammar 1

II. The Sentence : the Parts of Speech 10

Chapter I. Introduction. —language And Grammar

1. The English Language. — There are hundreds of languages spoken in the world, and the only way in which we can define any one of them is to say that it is the language spoken in such and such a country or by such and such a people. The English Language may, therefore, be defined as the language spoken by the people of England, and by all who speak like them anywhere else in the world ; for example, in the United States. Since our language gets its name from the people living in England, we must look a little into their history, in order to understand why we speak as we do.

2. The Early Inhabitants of England. — In early times, the country which we know as England was called Britain, and its inhabitants were called Britons. They belonged to the same Celtic (or Keltic) race which then lived in France and Spain. Their language was very different from the English, being much like what the language of Wales is at the present day. Indeed, the modern Welsh people are the descendants of these old Britons.

3. The Coming of the English into Britain. —

About fifteen hundred years ago, the ancestors of the

2 INTRODUCTION.

English people came over to Britain from their homes on the northern shores of Germany, and killed or drove out of the country the Celtic people whom they found there. Then they took possession of the country, and in time formed a new nation. There were several tribes of these Germans — the Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons. The name Anglo-Saxon is made from the names of the most powerful tribes. The Angles finally gave their name to the whole people and to the country, which cameto be called Angle-land or Engle-land, and thence England. So the people came to be known as the Ungle-ish or English People.

4. Relation of English to Other Languages. — Because the English language was brought from Germany into England, being then only a dialect of the German, it is still very much like the languages of Germany. For this reason it is said to be a Germanic or Teutonic language. All the Germanic languages, together with most of the others spoken in Europe — as, for example, the French, the Spanish, the Italian, the Swedish, the Russian — and part of those spoken in Asia, as the languages of India and Persia, form a great body of languages, resembling one another, and so called a "family." The names most often applied to this family of languages are the Indo-European and the Aryan. The English language, then, belongs to the Germanic or Teutonic group of the Indo-European or Aryan family of languages.

5. The Norman Conquest. — In the eleventh century, the English-speaking people of England were conquered by the Normans, a French-speaking people. As the two races intermingled, the language became mixed ;

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 6

so that a large part of our English comes from Germany and another large part from France, to say nothing of many words which have come from still other sources.

The Normans came from France into England under the leadership of William, Duke of Normandy, who is known in history as William the Conqueror. His victory over the English in the famous battle of Hastings, fought in 1066, was the beginning of what is known as The Norman Conquest. The ancestors of these Normans came from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, and they are often called the Northmen.

6. Spread of the English Language. — The English conquered and settled other countries besides England ; as, for example, the southern part of Scotland, and, much later, a large part of Ireland. In time, the English people became great travellers and traders and sent out colonies to all parts of the world. The colonists, of course, carried their native language with them far out of England, wherever they made their new homes. Some of these English colonies have now become great nations. That in North America especially has grown until it is as numerous a people as the English of England. The English language is now used by many more people out of England than in it; but it still keeps everywhere its old name.

7. Changes in the Language. — Our English, however, is by no means the same language that has always gone by that name. The language first brought from Northern Germany into England was so different from ours that we should not understand it at all if we heard it spoken ; and we cannot learn to read it without as much study as it takes to learn French or German, The

4 INTRODUCTION.

reason is that every living language is all the time changing. Some old words go out of use ; other new words come into use ; some words change their meaning ; many change their spelling ; and almost all change their pronunciation. Our phrases, too, the ways in which we put words together to express our thoughts, become by degrees different. Such changes are sometimes very slow ; but they are all the time going on, everywhere. The English language as it may be used in centuries to come will doubtless be as different from that which we speak and write as our English is from that of several centuries ago.

8. Names by which the Language is Known. —

Special names have been given to the English language as used at different periods. The earliest English that we know anything about is the English of the time of King Alfred the Great, who lived about one thousand years ago. This is commonly called the Anglo-Saxon, to distinguish it from that of later times. Other names, such as Old English, Early English, and Middle English, have been given to the language of times between King Alfred's and our own. When, therefore, the simple name "English" is used, it is understood to mean the language of our time, such as we ourselves speak and write.

9. Dialects of Modern English. — Not only is the English language which we speak different from that of past centuries, but it is different from that which is now spoken by people living in some other parts of the world. It is, in some little things, so unlike the language spoken in England that travellers may be easily recognized as Englishmen or Americans by the

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 5

way they talk. In almost every region where English is spoken, the language shows some peculiarities which are not noticed elsewhere. For example, there are the peculiarities of the English of Ireland, as we hear them from the Irish emigrant; and those of the English of Scotland, as we hear them from travellers, or read them in the poetry of Burns and the stories of Scott. When these peculiarities become so many and so marked that the people who use them are not readily understood by other English-speaking people, they make what is called a Dialect of English. Thus we speak of the " negro dialect," when we refer to the English language as spoken by the negroes of the Southern United States, and the " Yorkshire dialect," when we mean the rough English spoken by the natives of Yorkshire, England.

10. Good English and Bad English. — Wherever the English language is spoken, there is a noticeable difference between the speech of educated and uneducated persons ; and a difference, though in a less degree, even among those of equal education and culture. We speak of this as the difference between u good English" and "bad English." By "good English" we mean such as is used by the most careful writers and speakers, the people of best education ; and " bad English " is simply such as is not approved and accepted by them. It is, therefore, the usage of educated people, and not any book of rules, that makes the standard of good English.

11. Language and Grammar. — Every one who speaks any language "naturally," as we say, learns it from the people around him, as he is growing up. If he associates only with people who use the language

6 INTRODUCTION.

correctly, he unconsciously copies their good habits of speech, without knowing any reason for speaking as he does. On the other hand, if he associates with people who are careless or ignorant about correct usage, he naturally learns to talk as they do, without any idea of the mistakes he is making. Indeed, there are very few persons who do not acquire in early youth some bad habits of speech, which must be corrected afterwards. It is partly to help in this process of correcting errors in speech, that the approved usages of language are collected, arranged, and set forth in a book which is called a Grammar. It must be understood that grammar does not make laws for language. It merely states the facts in regard to the right use of language, and in an orderly way, so that they can be easily referred to and learned.

12. English Grammar. — English Grammar may be defined as a description of those usages of the English language which are now approved by the best writers and speakers.

13. Usefulness of the Study of Grammar* — In order to use the English language correctly, it is not necessary to study English grammar. Indeed, many people learn to use good English simply by noticing and imitating the usage of good writers and speakers, without having any knowledge of grammar as a science. It may be asked, " Of what use, then, is the study ? What good will it do us?" The study of grammar is useful to us because it helps and hastens the process of learning to use good English, since it sets before us the rules of good usage, with illustrations and exercises. It is especially useful to those who have been unfortunate

^LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAB. 7

enough to learn at first a bad kind of English, by hearing it from the people around them.

The value of the study appears more clearly the farther we advance in language-learning. Most of us wish to learn other languages than our own. We can do this more easily and accurately, if we understand how our own language is made and used; for then we can compare these other languages with it, and can more readily understand and remember wherein they differ from the English. Again, we may wish to study some of the older forms of English, and compare them with the language as now used. If we have some knowledge of modern English grammar, we shall be the better able to appreciate the fact that during all these centuries the English language has not only changed, but has developed and improved.

Besides, we may not be content with merely using language ; w r e may wish to know something of what language is, and what it is worth to us. The history of language has a great deal to tell us about the history of man, and of what he has done in the world.

For all these purposes, we need to have that sort ot knowledge of language to which the study of gram mat is the first step, and to which a study of the grammar of our own language is the easiest and surest step.

QUESTIONS.

1. About how many languages are spoken in the ivorld ? From what are they named? What is the English language?

2. What was the early name of England? What were its inhabitants called? What people are descended from them? What sort of language did the early inhabitants speak?

3. When did the English come into England? From what place? How did they treat the inhabitants? Name the principal

8 INTRODUCTION.

tribes of the English. Explain the meaning of "Anglo-Saxon." Explain the origin of the names " England " and " English."

4. How was the English language at first related to the German? Why is the English called a Germanic language? Give another name for the group of languages related to the English. Give two names for the " family " to which the English language belongs. What do these names mean ? Name some other European languages belonging to the same family with the English. What Asiatic languages belong to this family? Why is it called a "family"?

5. Where was the original home of the Normans ? By what other name are they known ? From what country did they come into England ? Who was their leader ? Where and what is Normandy? What is meant by "The Norman Conquest"? What language was spoken by the Normans who came into England? What two kinds of words chiefly made up the English language after the Norman Conquest ?

6. Name some countries which the English conquered. What are the largest English colonies? Explain how the English language has spread.

7. Compare our English with that brought from Germany. Mention some of the ways in which, a language gradually changes. Is the English language now undergoing changes ?

8. Wliat name is given to the English language of King Alfred's time ? What names are given to the English of periods between Alfred's and our own? What is understood by the simple name " English " when applied to the language?

9. How does the English spoken in America compare with that spoken in England? Can you mention any particular points of difference? Mention some places where a very different sort of English is spoken from that which we use. What is a dialect?

10. What is meant by " good English " ? What is " bad English " ? What is the standard of good English ?

11. How is any language naturally learned? How does it happen that some children learn to speak correctly and others incorrectly? What is the chief purpose of a grammar? What, in general, does the book contain ? Is grammar a science ? How is grammar related to language ?

12. Define English Grammar.

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 9

13. In what respect is the study of grammar unnecessary ? Why, and to whom, is it chiefly useful ? How does a knowledge of English grammar help us to use good English? How does it help us to learn foreign languages? How is it useful in studying old forms of English ? What are some of the things which we may learn by studying the history of language?

Chapter II. The Sentence: The Parts Of Speech

14. Classification of Words. — The English language, like every other, is made up of words. Each word has its own part to take in the work of expressing our thoughts ; its own meanings, and its own ways of being used with other words.

15. Use of "Words in Sentences. — For example, sun and snow are the names of objects ; but shines and melts are of a different kind. They are words which we put with the names of objects, in order to tell something about the objects themselves. Such statements as Sun shines, snow melts, are called Declarations or Assertions, because they declare or assert some fact. When they stand by themselves, as the complete expression of a thought, they are also called Sentences.

If we make longer sentences, such as

The golden sun shines brightly, The feathery snow melts quickly,

we notice that the word the is not used like the words of which we ha^e already spoken. It does not name anything or declare anything. It must, therefore, belong to some other class of words. Ciolden and feathery are used to describe the sun and the snow, and so must belong to one and the same class; and brightly and quickly belong to still another class, because they express the manner of shining and melting. It is plain, then, that words may be classified according to their use in sentences.

NAMES AND DEFINITIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

16. Parts of Speech. — The classes into which words are divided, according to their uses, are called the Parts of Speech. They will be fully described in later chapters ; but for convenience they are here briefly defined.

1 7. A Noun is the name of anything. Noun means simply 4 name.''

18. It may be, for example,

(a) The name of a person or a place ; as, Charles,

Queen Victoria, China. (6) The name of some object or some quality that we

can see or hear or taste or smell or feel; as,

stars, beauty ; music, melody ; fruit, sourness ;

'perfume, odor ; heat, pain, smoothness, (c) The name of some quality or idea that we merely

think of; as, gentleness, faith, perseverance, reason,

happiness.

NOUNS.

Oral. Point out the nouns and tell what they name.

Written. Copy the sentences and draw a line under each noun.

1. October contains five Saturdays this year. 2. Roses delight us with their color and fragrance. 3. The music of the organ sounds like the roar of thunder. 4. In Mammoth Cave are found fishes that have no eyes. 5. The cold of winter and the heat of summer are alike to him. 6. Electricity is now much used instead of steam. 7. Charles Dickens was buried in Westminster Abbey. 8. Courage is admirable, but patience is powerful. 9. A cry of pain and terror broke the stillness of the night. 10. Simplicity in dress and manners indicates refinement.

19. A Pronoun is a word which stands for a noun.

In speaking and writing we should find it very awkward to be continually repeating the names of persons and things ; so we make use of words which are called Pronouns, because they take the place of nouns. Pronoun means ''for a noun.''

20. A Pronoun may take the place of

(a) The name of the person who is speaking or writing, and also of others who are associated with him ; as, I, my, me, we, us, our.

(6) The name of the person or persons addressed : you, ye, thou, thee.

(c) The name of the person or thing that has just been

mentioned ; as, he, his, him, she, her, it, it's ; or, if more than one, they, their, them.

(d) The name of an object that is pointed out; as, this,

that; or, if more than one, these, those.

(e) The names of objects selected from a group or class ;

as, each, loth, all, some. (/) A name that is not known to the speaker, but is inquired for; as, who? which? what?

PRONOUNS.

Oral. Point out the pronouns and mention the nouns for which they stand.

Written. Copy the sentences, drawing a line under each pronoun and writing after each, in brackets, the noun to which it refers. Thus:

Kate writes that she [Kate] will spend the winter in Italy if its [Italy's] climate agrees with her [Kate].

1. John's parents have received a letter from him. 2. It is long and interesting, and contains much information about Russia and its people. 3. Some of their customs are peculiar, but they are not as odd as those of the Chinese. 4. This is his first visit to the country. 5. Who went with him? 6. We do not know, but I suppose that his uncle went. 7. What was their reason for going ? 8. You must ask them. 9. Their journey will be long and expensive. 10. That will not trouble them ; for each has plenty of money, and both are young and strong.

21. A Verb is a word that declares or asserts something about a person or a thing. Verb is simply the Latin name for 4 word.''

22. It may be

(a) A single word ; as, grow, sees, do, write. (6) A phrase ; that is, a combination of several words, used as a verb.

Such expressions are called Verb-phrases.

Ex. Is growing, has been seen, will do, had written.

VERBS.

Oral. Point out the verbs and the verb-phrases. Written. Draw one line under the simple verbs and two under the verb-phrases.

1. Swallows sometimes build nests in chimneys. 2. Franklin was born in Boston and lived for many years in Philadelphia. 3. Dates grow on palm-trees. 4. Children are playing in the street. 5. The walls were covered with paintings and sculptures. 6. Caesar conquered many tribes. 7. The robins have flown to their winter homes. 8. You might have written your essay. 9. They had been studying history. 10. John Quincy Adams was inaugurated March 4, 1825.

23. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun. The name signifies something 4 added ' to the noun by way of description.

24. It may be, for example,

(a) A word expressing some quality ; as, good, sweet, stern, delicate.

(5) A word telling how many ; as, five, few, many, several, all.

(c) A word pointing out which one or ones; as, this, these, that, those, yonder.

25. The Articles. — The adjectives a, an, and the, are called the Articles, and are sometimes regarded as forming a separate part of speech.

ADJECTIVES.

Oral. Point out the adjectives and tell what nouns they qualify. Written. Draw one line under the adjective and two under the word which it describes or limits.

1. A dainty basket was filled with ripe fruit. 2. It contained golden oranges, ruddy apples, and luscious purple and white grapes. 3. Many islands have been formed by the patient labor of these tiny insects. 4. The Egyptian pyramids are gigantic piles of masonry. 5. June is the sixth month of the year. 6. There are sixteen chapters in that book. 7. The royal palace is surrounded by beautiful and extensive gardens. 8. They contain several small lakes and numerous fountains. 9. The many-colored, One-story houses are ranged in narrow streets, which cross each other at right angles. 10. Shy fishes lurk in the shady nooks of that peaceful stream. 11. A comfortable old age is the reward of a well-spent youth.

26. An Adverb is a word used to modify or limit the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or sometimes of another adverb. Adverb means ' added to a verb'

27. It may tell

(a) How ; as, rapidly, fiercely, beautifully, truly.

(6) When; as, noiv, then, lately, formerly, sometimes, never.

(c) Where ; as, here, there, everyivhere, yonder, thither.

(d) How much ; as, so, very, too, more, less, enough, quite.

ADVERBS.

Oral. Point out the adverbs and tell ivhat they modify.

Written. Draw one line under the adverb and two lines under the word which it modifies. If necessary, connect the adverb and the word which it modifies by drawing a curved line from one to the other ; thus, We seldom think how precious are these little moments.

1. The wind whistles shrilly through the pines. 2. People often make mistakes, and sometimes suffer for them. 3. The people of China are wonderfully industrious. 4. Salt easily dissolves in water. 5. Dead leaves are strewn everywhere, but here and there a flower may yet be seen. 6. You are not strong enough to work so hard. 7. Flocks of sea-gulls fly fearlessly about the ship, or float gracefully upon the water. 8. He is an extremely careful driver. 9. She sings very sweetly. 10. We go there very often now, and we always have a remarkably pleasant time.

28. A Preposition is a word that joins a noun or pronoun to some other word, showing the relation between them. The word preposition means '-placed, before.''

29. The relation may be that of (a) Possession ; as, of.

Ex. The palace of the king [= the king's palace] .

(6) Nearness ; as, by, beside, with.

(c) Time ; as, until, till, before, after.

(d) Place ; as, above, beloiv, behind, in, into, from ; and

so on, with various other relations.

PREPOSITIONS.

Oral. Point out the prepositions and tell what words they join.

Written. Draw one line under the preposition and two under the words between which it shows a relation. If necessary, use a curved line, as in Exercise 5.

1. The picture hangs over the mantel. 2. After dinner we will walk. 3. He hid behind the door. 4. We could not see the face of the stranger. 5. There is good fishing in the stream among the rocks. 6. We fished below the bridge. 7. Amber is brought from the shores of Germany. 8. The water rushes over a precipice into the depths of the gorge. 9. The fisherman's widow lives in a cottage by the sea. 10. Our friend will be with us before night.

30. A Conjunction is a word used to join words, phrases [see 43], or sentences. The word means 'joining together.'

Ex. He spoke of the grass and flowers and trees ; [Words.] Of the singing birds and the humming bees. [Phrases.]

Life is a short day, but it is a working day. [Sentences.]

31. The conjunctions have various meanings, such as,

(# ) Cause or reason ; as, for, because, therefore.

(5) Condition ; as, if.

(c) Time ; as, while, when.

(c?) Comparison ; as, than.

(e) Addition ; as, and.

CONJUNCTIONS.

Oral. Point out the conjunctions and tell what they connect. Written. Draw one line under the conjunction and two under the expressions which it joins.

1. The sun and moon and stars are all wonderful. 2. Xo time was to be wasted ; for the tide was rising. 3. These animals have come from the deep woods, and the wild mountains, and the desert sands, and the polar snows. 4. I would write a letter, if I had good paper. 5. 1 have neither pen nor ink nor paper. 6. She suffered more than words can tell. 7. Men stared in terror while the flames rose higher. 8. The chimes ring at sunrise and at sunset. 9. Some railroads go under the rivers and over the mountains. 10. The road is rough but shady.

32. An Interjection is an exclamation used to express a feeling, as of pain, joy, fear, surprise, contempt, sadness, disgust, etc. The word means "thrown into the midst?

Ex. Oh ! ah ! hurrah ! alas ! bah ! pooh ! pshaw !

33. Strictly speaking, the interjections are not "parts of speech " at all ; because they are not combined with other words to make sentences, but are ' thrown into the midst'' of other words in the sentence, without much connection with them. For convenience, however, they are commonly included among the parts of speech.

INTERJECTIONS.

Oral. Point out the interjections and tell what feeling they express. Written. Underline the interjections.

1. Oh ! I have cut my ringer. 2. Oh ! what fun that will be ! 3. Oh ! how you frightened me ! 4. Alas ! how hard it is to be poor ! 5. Bah ! what a silly performance ! 6. Hurrah ! vacation is here at last ! 7. Pooh ! anybody can do as well as that. 8. Ah ! what a wonderful thought ! 9. Ugh ! how cold it is ! 10. Ha ! I've caught you now !

34. Summary of the Parts of Speech. — The parts of speech may be classified as follows : —

I. The three main parts of speech, the Noun, the Pno noun, and the Verb, which may form sentences without the help of the other parts.

II. The two qualifiers, the Adjective and the Adverb, always put with some other word, which they describe or limit.

III. The two connectives, the Preposition and the Conjunction, which join one word or one part of a sentence to another.

IV. The Interjection, which is used independently of other words.

35. A Word not always the Same Part of Speech. — Every word in our language may be included in one or another of these eight classes called parts of speech ; but we must not suppose that a particular word must always belong to a certain class. The sense in which a word is used in a sentence determines what part of speech it is in that instance ; and the same word sometimes has different uses in different sentences, or even in the same sentence. It follows, then, that a word may belong to two or more of these classes, according to its use and meaning.