Grasses and clovers, field roots, forage and fodder plants

Front matter

: LIBRARY OF- CONGRESS.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

X

Prefatory Note

This book was written for the publishers at their request and with the sanction and approval of the Agricultural Committee of the Board of Regents of the State of Minnesota. It is intended to supply in some degree the great dearth of practical literature on the subjects of which it treats. When writing it, the Author's aim was to render it helpful to the farmers of this Republic, and more especially to those located in the newer sections thereof, where experience in growing many valuable farm products is as yet very limited, and in some instances entirely wanting.

THOMAS SHAW.

GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS.

Chapter I

The Great importance Relatively of Grass, Forage, fodder and root crops.

The grass crop of the world is the most important crop by far that mother earth produces. No other crop is so necessary to the sustenance of the various forms of animal life, nor is there any which covers so large an area. Even in rich, arable sections distinguished for growing cereals there is usually a larger area devoted to grass than to any other variety of crop. And here it may be mentioned that the term grass is meant to include all the varieties of clover.

In no other way can soil fertility and soil moisture be so easily maintained as by growing grass in one or the other of its various forms, and in no other way can the comparative density of the soil be kept so perfectly in equilibrium. It follows, therefore, that more attention should be given relatively to the growing of grasses than to the growing of other crops.

' But there are special reasons why the grass crop should receive most careful attention at the hands of the farmers in that section of the United States and Canada, usually spoken of as the Northwest. These grow out of the comparative dryness of the climate in that region, the relatively small yields furnished by the upland native prairie, the dry and woody character of the grasses which grow upon it during the whole of the autumn, the much larger yields that will be obtained from certain varieties of the cultivated grasses, and the greater power which some of these possess to crowd out nearly all forms of noxious weed life.

While it is well to recognize the fact that some kinds of grass will always grow more shyly and less luxuriantly in the Northwest than in a more humid climate, it sliould be remembered that many kinds of grass can be introduced with great advantage in addition to those now grown. These varieties will be mentioned in a subsequent chapter. In the meantime every farmer should be testing them for himself to ascertain which kinds will best suit his soil and climate. He should introduce them at first with a prudent caution until he has satisfied himself that they have staying qualities. This once assured, they may be grown to any extent desired.

The term forage crops includes such crops as are grown for pasture or for summer feeding in addition to the grasses proper, as for instance rye eaten off fall and spring, rape eaten off when desired, and mixed grains grown and cut and fed while yet green. There is a peculiar propriety in growing these crops in the Northwest owing to the dryness of the climate and to the lack of succulence in the grasses in consequence at certain seasons of the year. In the judgment of the writer the successful growing of forage crops to supplement the pastures when these are dry is the most important consideration that can engage the attention of the producer of live stock. Every one thus engaged is deeply interested in this problem and should at once set to work in solving it for himself and more or less on the lines laid down in Chapter IV of this book.

To secure a vigorous germination at certain seasons of the year is the one real difficulty to be overcome in the growing of these forage crops. But many of them may be planted or sown while there is yet sufficient moisture in the ground to attain this end. The amount of food which may thus be grown per acre where a due regard is had to adaptation is in many instances very great. And the forage crops mentioned in the chapter referred to, have nutritive and succulent properties admirably adapted to the needs of various classes of live stock.

Fodder crops are those crops which are grown for winter foods, exclusive of the grain taken out of the ear, and field roots, as mangels, turnips and potatoes. They include such crops as corn, millet and cereals cut at a stage which precludes the necessity for threshing them. These crops will be still more in demand in the Northwest as the land becomes occupied, and the areas for producing wild hay decrease in consequence. They usually produce more food per acre than hay, and in some seasons they can be grown so as to supplement a light grass crop.

Relative Importance of Grasses and Root Crops. 9

Field roots include such crops as mangels, turnips and carrots. One variety or another of these can be grown in every section of the Northwest, and indeed in all the Northern and Middle States and in the Dominion of Canada from sea to sea. On suitable soils and when properly grown they produce an enormous amount of food per acre. And when fed as a part of the ration, more especially in the winter season, no other food adjunct is equal to them for keeping live stock in a healthy condition, or promoting their rapid development.

CHAPTER

Grasses.

In this chapter only those varieties are discussed in detail which have been found suitable to the conditions of the Northwest, or in reference to which there is a strong lil<elihood that they will be found suitable to those conditions. It is more than probable that other varieties may yet be found adapted to this country, but the discussion of these at present would be foreign to the aim of this bool<.

Notwithstanding the important part that cultivated grasses anu clovers will yet play in the agriculture of the Northwest, they should be discussed in the meantime with a prudent caution. But little is l<nown positively regarding the adaptability of some of the different varieties, as several of them have not been sufficiently tested as yet; and where tests have been made in many instances the conditions were such that the conclusions reached have either possessed but little value or have been positively misleading. In a country so large, one variety for instance, may fail in one locality and prove a success in another where the conditions of soil and climate are different, and the opposite of this may also prove true. And in situationsfar apart where the soil conditions are exactly the same, very dissimilar results may be obtained in growing the same plants owing to a difference in climate.

Timothy. — Timothy [Phleiim p7'atense) is so well known that it is not necessary to describe it. At present it stands crowned king of all the grasses. It is probably adapted to a wider range of conditions than any other variety of grass. No other variety is perhaps equal to it in average yields, nor does any other variety excel it in all round feeding value. It is best suited to rich, damp loam soils abounding in vegetable matter. On these soils the best crops can be grown when they lie upon a subsoil of average density. Clay loams are preferable

Cultivated Grasses and Clovers.

to sandy loams. Sandy soils produce light crops of timothy, and the lighter the sand the less adapted is it to the growth of timothy. Fair crops may be grown in some seasons on stiff clays.

Timothy may be sown alone in the early autumn or along with a crop of rye, or it may be sown early in the spring. In the autumn it should be sown in September alone or along with rye. When sown late in the spring it is much more liable to be destroyed by the dry weather of summer. The depth of the covering will depend on the nature of the soil, the humidity of the climate and the time of sowing. The lighter and more spongy the soil the deeper the covering required, and the more humid the climate, and the earlier in the spring that the seed is sown, the lighter will be the covering needed. When the weather is moist it is not necessary to cover the seed on heavy soils. On soils that do not shift with the wind the roller may provide a sufficient covering for seed sown in the spring, but for seed sown in the autumn it should never be thus used. On very spongy soils such as we sometimes find on the prairie, the seed may be buried to the depth of one inch or more.

Timothy can be sown by hand, with an attachment to the grain drill, or with seeders made for the purpose. The amount of seed required will vary with the soil conditions and with the extent to which it is grown in conjunction with other grasses. The richer the soil and the finer the tilth, the less the quantity of seed required. If sown alone, from 6 to 12 pounds of seed may be used. When sown with clover the amount of timothy seed required will vary with the relative proportion of each that may be sought, but from 4 to 6 pounds of timothy and from 6 to 8 pounds of clover are usually deemed sufficient.

Timothy is more commonly grown for hay than for pasture, but is very extensively raised for both uses. When grown for hay it may be grown alone or along with other grasses and clovers. On average soils it is frequently sown along with common red or mammoth clover and on low soils containing much vegetable matter with alsike clover. When timothy has reached full bloom it is ready to be cut for hay. It cures easily and if allowed to ripen its seeds the crop is cut with the binder. It is threshed with an ordinary threshing machine.

Timothy has proved itself well adapted to the Northwest. On prairie soils it seldom fails to make a "stand" when sown early in the season, under suitable conditions. But after it has been cut once or twice it frequently becomes so tliick in the bottom that it fails to give a large return in hay. When this takes place it should be ploughed under ; in other words, on prairie soils timothy meadows should be of short duration.

Unlike clover, timothy does not enrich the Jand but on prairie soils it accomplishes much good in another way. When a timothy meadow is broken up it brings much moisture to the soil which is of great benefit to the crop that comes after it. For this reason if for no other timothy should come frequently in the rotation on prairie soils.

Blue Grass. — Blue grass {Poa pratensis) is a perennial with creeping rootstocks. It is sometimes known as June grass, probably from the fact that in the northern hemisphere it matures its seeds in the month of June. It is also frequently called Kentucky blue grass. It seems to grow singularly well in Kentucky, hence probably the origin of the name. Indeed the term blue grass is a misnomer, as it properly belongs to a variety {Poa compressa) not nearly so widely distributed as June grass. The real blue grass, {Poa coinpressa) has a flat stem of a blue color and the leaves also have a blueish tinge. It does not mature its seeds for nearly a month after the other variety has been ripe, and moreover it weighs very heavily when made into hay, whereas the other variety {Poa pratensis) does not weigh so heavily, nor is it of so good feeding quality.

Blue grass {Poa pratensis) is very widely distributed. It seems to be a native of Europe, Asia and America. Over large portions of the North American continent it does not require to be sown it is so well established. Where forests have been cut away it will soon take possession of the soil without having been sown, and there is probably no grass in the northern part of the continent which can hold its own against blue grass, unless it be couch grass, which is usually looked upon as a weed.

Blue grass is gradually working westward and with occupancy of the lands, it puts in an appearance, although it does not come so readily in the open prairie as in those sections of the west naturally capable of growing timber. Nor does it grow so vigorously when it has been established. Nevertheless it is doubtless destined to overrun very much of the west in time, so that after land has been once cultivated and then allowed to run wild again, blue grass will be the variety which will take possession of such soils. Its advent in the Northwest should be encouraged, for, though it has some weak points, it is much superior to the native prairie as a pasture.

Blue grass springs up early in the season. It is at its best for providing pasture in all the Northern States early in June, and in those further to the southward in May. Then it remains dormant in summer and springs into life again in the autumn with the arrival of the autumnal rains. In Kentucky and other states in latitudes where the winters are mild, this grass furnishes much food at that season. The chief exception taken to blue grass in the Northwest is the long period during which it lies dormant in the summer. This can in part be remedied by refraining from pasturing too closely.

From what has been said, it will be apparent that this grass will grow in almost any kind of soil, that under reasonable conditions no difficulty will be found in sustaining it, and that once in the soil it is likely to spring up again after the land has been cultivated. Moreover, owing to the many root stocks which it produces, blue grass serves an excellent purpose in putting vegetable matter in the soil which will bring moisture to it when other crops have been made to follow it. Its appearance therefore should be countenanced by sowing it freely where it has not yet been grown.

Blue grass is grown more for pasture than for hay, and when grown alone it furnishe'* the most common form of permanent pasture found in America. It is seldom sown to produce hay. On old cultivated lands it will come into a permanent pasture composed of mixed grasses as it were spontaneously in two or three years, but its advent is hastened by sowing some of the seed when the permanent pasture is laid down.

The seed is commonly sown by hand and covered with the harrow. It may be put in with a nurse crop the same as other grasses. Two bushels of seed are recommended per acre when blue grass is the only grass sown. The seed weighs 14 lbs. per bushel. When this grass has once become established it will stand any amount of cropping. The cold of winter seems to have no power to kill it, and it seems virtually able to endure the most prolonged drought of summer.

Blue grass must be very promptly cut when it is to be cured for hay. If allowed to get too far advanced before it is cut it will be almost valueless for fodder, and the same is true when it is allowed to dry too much in the sun while being cured, Blue grass is ready for cutting when once fully out in head.

Orchard Grass.— Orchard grass {Dactylis glojnerata),{stt Fig. 1) is a perennial which grows vigorously on suitable soils. It is thought to be a native of Europe, but is now found in North Africa, India and North America. Noted for its persistent growth, it furnishes good pasture in the spring and also in the autumn, ordinarily growing from two to two and a half feet in height when matured. The leaves are numerous, large and somewhat coarse. The heads are branched rather than single.

This grass is possessed of wonderful adaptation to various soils and climates, and to different modes of treatment. As the name implies, it is well suited to shady places, such as orchards and groves, where the foliage is not too dense. It grows particularly well in the climate of New England. In some of the Central States it has also proved a decided success. But in the West the accounts regarding it are not quite so hopeful, and in the Northwest experience with reference to growing it is as yet comparatively limited. Some of those who have tried it are well pleased with the results. On the slopes of the Pacific, where the rainfall is abundant, orchard grass should do very well.

This grass is grown both as a pasture and for hay, but more especially to provide pasture. In congenial situations no other grass probably will equal it in furnishing pasture, in orchards and open groves, but it will not grow in a thicket or amid underwood. It is much given to growing in tufts, particularly as it becomes older. This may be partially prevented by sowing the seed thickly. When raised for hay under favorable conditions, more than one crop per year is sometimes obtained. And when but one crop is cut in the season the aftermath is usually luxuriant.

Orchard grass is more suitable for pasture than for meadow, for the reason, first, that the leaves are abundant in proportion to the stems; second, it commences to grow very early in the spring, fully two weeks sooner than almost any other variety of cultivated grass, and it continues to flourish where the moisture is sufficient until frosts come in the autumn; third, it is less affected by the drought of summer than many other varieties of grass, and fourth, where the conditions are favorable its durability is marked. This grass has been grown on the same land for from thirty to forty years.

Orchard grass is best adapted to good, strong, deep loam soils, free

^CoPffitcHTeo S> —

~\ /fo/^7,f/fiifi BtAii^N Qoa/>yv/f^ to

' Fig. 1. Orchard Grass.

16 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots^ Forage a7id Fodder Platits.

in texture and fairly porous in character. The subsoil should be medium both as regards texture and moisture. It will not thrive on poor, light soils, on gravels or on lands naturally wet or undrained. It will grow fairly well on clays but not nearly so freely as on rich loams. The practice is more common of sowing orchard grass in the spring than at any other season, and where the winters are severe it cannot be sown later with safety, but in moist regions with mild winters it can be sown early in August. It may be seeded by itself or along with a crop of grain. When sown by itself the seed may be scattered broadcast or put in with the grain drill. If sown with the grain drill no further covering would be required, but when scattered broadcast it should be cov. ered to a fair depth in prairie soils, and to a less depth in soils more stiff in texture. It has been claimed that as many as twenty-eight pounds of seed or two bushels per acre are necessary if orchard grass is grown by itself. When sown as a part of a mixture for meadow or for permanent pasture, only a few pounds of seed per acre are required. In a meadow this grass should accompany the common red clover, as they are ready for harvesting about the same time. But orchard grass is not very well suited for being grown in a meadow, owing to the tendency which it seems to possess to crowd out other grasses.

In localities where orchard grass will grow freely along with blue grass and white clover, the three make an excellent and durable permanent pasture. The quantity of seed to be sown would depend largely on the proportions of the other varieties wanted. But as both blue grass and white clover seem able eventually to occupy the ground to the virtual exclusion of the orchard grass a liberal seeding of the latter should be used.

When grown for hay, orchard grass should be cut when in early bloom. If allowed to pass this stage it soon becomes woody and unpalatable. It is easily cured, and care should be taken to rake it as soon as ready. When it gets too dry it becomes woody and is not relished by live stock. If a crop of seed is wanted, the plan is sometimes adopted of cutting the orchard grass with the binder. The machine is set to cut the grass high to avoid gathering the mass of foliage which covers the ground for some distance above the surface.

This grass is well worthy of a trial in the Northwest. But it should be sown here in small areas until more has been learned of its adaptability. Two methods of trying it may be outlined. First, it may be sown thinly in groves free from underwood, in the very early spring, and second, it may be sown by itself at the same season, on a well prepared plot of ground somewhat limited in extent.

Meadow Fescue. — Meadow fescue {Festiica pratefisis) is a perennial and like nearly all the members of the fescue family, it is hardy and well able to retain its hold upon the soil. Sometimes it is called Randall grass, and it is not infrequently mistaken for tall meadow fescue, to which it bears no little resemblance. It does not grow quite so tall as timothy, but it stools out well, and furnishes pasture or fodder fine in character, rather than coarse.

Although probably a native of Europe, this grass grows well in all the Middle States, and in those to the north so far as it has been tried, but its value for the Northwest has not yet been fully ascertained. In Ontario it grows very well, and also in the Province of Quebec.

Meadow fescue is a very hardy plant, a most persistent grower, produces a fair amount of aftermath and is long lived. Its long fibrous roots enable it to withstand drought well. Properly speaking it may be termed a midsummer grass, but it ripens quite as soon as timothy. It is much relished by live stock whether used as a pasture or as hay. Meadow fescue is very well suited to a wide range of soils, for instance loams, clays and gravels, not too open in texture. It is proving itself one of the best adapted to American conditions of any member of the fescue family, if not indeed the best. In strong, deep, low lying soils it grows very freely^ but on average, araole. upland soils it also seems to do well.

It is not usual to grow this grass by itself unless to procure seed from it. It may be grown in meadows, but only in those which are to be cut for hay for a number of years successively, since it takes meadow fescue some considerable time to establish itself. It does not therefore reach the highest stage of growth until a year or more after it has been sown. If sown in meadows it should be grown along with timothy. This grass is useful in permanent pastures, and is more commonly grown in them than in any other way. The seed weighs 15 pounds per bushel and when sown to produce seed probably not less than 30 pounds or two bushels would be required per acre. In appearance the seed bears a close resemblance to that of perennial rye grass.

When permanent pastures are laid down in the Northwest, meadow fescue should be one of the grasses of which these should be composed* p!i;^ a niDie spfcJ_\- \va\- n\ pro\-iriLj; it-- adapt. ibiiitv wiiiiLl l^;' t" >'rA- it i \ il-clt on a pint (,t Weil pivpareJ Snil.

Tall Oat (jrass. Tali cat crass i./rv;/-; ■.■///>/■! is also knMwn ;)s

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III J cwr.Liicen ,u;

It ii'.Jiizcihuis tn Euiiipe. but lia:> ImhikI a ninre cniiL^^Tiial Iv'aic in some [^nrtimi^ 'it tlu-- I'nitr'J States. ii^Tf especiallx' in tlic^e ^ta;-, s tc tiu- wt'St and south. It ^"aii also be .^rowa in .l^ooJ tr-riii in tl-e New Eiiu'lariJ <tates and Ontario, hence it i< po-^ible tliat the di>tribution ot tliis crass will >et v;r\er nearl\- all parts n\ tlie K'ep'ablic.

Tall oat ct;*^^ ;'^ the name indicates crows up hicli. siunetime-^ is hich as six tt-et, but oidinaril\' it does not rea.h bait tiiat iieiciit. 1" is a hard\- perennial. leat\- in its habit of growth, and when out in hcA.\ bears considerable reseiiiblarue to the common oat. Ir, climates tiiat are mea-u.rabl\- moivt. it is ik^ difticult to establi-h ti<is ctass when sown on concenial soils, as its crowth is boihi rapid and Mrcnc. It makes a \'icorous earl\' cro'A'th, and also comes ^:,n acain later in tlie season, but it d'les ndt turnisli nearl_\- so mucli autumn t^race as orchard c'ass. It produces a lar.ce crop ot hay. but its teedinc \-ah.ie is not considered so co'id as that of tiniothx .

Tal! oat crass will •j^row on a crc-at \'ariet\- of soils, as it i> a c^"^^ h/eder. Tile r<Mits strike both downward and lateran\ . It nuil;es ltmoJ procress on medium soils. ( )n cla\s c-xen and on s.ijls owr-drx. it -Aid m.ike a more xicorous crowth than man\" other kuiuls nt ^r.iss. pmir. thin lands, or ^hose which .are wet .ire not suitable tor crowJnc tall oat

This cr.iss m:iN- be sowai .alone, as a part of a mixture for meadow, and .IS one t.i^tor in toiniinc a permanent jxisture. but it is perliaj^s bt 1. ter ad.ipted for ha\- than for p.isture. W hen sona-u b_\- its.Mt fA o PLisheiof seed are receimmended for an acre, bourteen pounds ot the srrd iii the cliaft make a bu.shel. The seed is sown broadcast, whate\er tb.e end max be for x\diich it is soxxai. and it requires cox'erinc xxdtli t!ie harrow. Wliere the se.isons are lone a crop ot ha\- is sometimes obtained tile first season. Wdien ci''"''^'n in a meadox\- it ma\' accompanx' red clox'er. .as the tx\-o ripen at the same time. It must be cut promptix- tor either hax- or for tiie seed. Wdien beinc cured for liax' it is xerx e.isilv injured b\' ox'ermuch sunlicht or b\- rain. 1 he seed shells quite re.adily x\-hen ripe. The binder can be utilized with much adx'antace in reaping this crop tor the seed.

Information is very scant with regard to the growth of tall oat grass in the Northwest. It could be more readily tried at first as the sole crop grown on the ground for the season. Good, clean, moist land should be chosen. It merits a careful trial at the hands of those interested.

Meadow Foxtail. — Meadow foxtail {Alopeeurus pratenszs) is a perennial of erect habit of growth. It reaches very nearly the ordinary height of timothy when fully matured. It also bears resemblance to timothy but has a smaller and softer head, is more leafy in character, and springs up quickly when pastured or mown. Although indigenous to Europe it is now found in North Africa, Western Asia and America.

This grass produces a large quantity of leafy herbage in proportion to the stalk, hence it is much relished by live stock. It is among the earliest of the cultivated grasses and ripens its seeds nearly if not quite a month earlier than timothy. Like orchard grass it will thrive well under trees and in shady places, but it will also grow when exposed under suitable conditions. It is said to be even more hardy than timothy.

Meadow foxtail is better adapted relatively for permanent pastures than for meadows. When sown in meadows, other grasses which mature more quickly are apt to crowd meadow foxtail which does not reach its best until three or four years after it has been sown. The seed is not produced so freely as that of some other kinds of grass, and in consequence less of it is sown than would be probably under other conditions.

Meadow foxtail is partial to deep, rich soils, but it also flourishes in moist climates on stiff loams and clays. It cannot live in a waterlogged soil and yet it is well suited to land subject to irrigation. It is but ill-adapted to light, dry soils lacking in plant food and in power to retain moisture.

When meadow foxtail is sown alone from two to three bushels of seed would be necessary. The seed is sown in the chaff. It only weighs about five pounds per bushel. It is common to sow it by hand and to cover it with the harrow. When sown in permanent pastures it is mixed v/ith the other coarse seeds and sown along with them.

Experience as regards the growing of this grass in the Northwest, is limited, hence but little can be said as to its adaptability. But we know in reference to it that it is hardy and that it grows early in the season, therefore it is worthy of a trial.

Red Top. — Red top {Agrostis vulgaris) is of many varieties. It is also known by otlier names more or less local in their application. This grass is found in one or the other of its many forms in nearly all parts of the continent capable of producing low land grasses. Although it is well adapted to the conditions in all states in which the climate is mild, as for instance Georgia and Tennessee, it also has an important mission before it in the Northwest, where it has given the most encouraging results.