Our language : its use and structure taught by practice and example

Preface

The arrangement of this book in two parts has made it possible to give under one cover both instruction and exercises for practice in nearly all kinds of elementary language work.

Part I is not an introduction to Part II, but is designed to provide for children such training in the ready use of good English as they can never get by the study of grammar alone. The preeminent importance of this training is recognized by placing the material for it first, instead of relegating it to a few meagre pages at the end, as if it were to give a finishing touch to a long course of study. It ought rather to be used from the outset, whether the structure of language is taught at the same time or not. The manner in which Part I may be used is set forth in the Introduction.

Part II is really an elementary text-book in grammar. Beginning with the Sentence, the essentials of form and structure are so presented as to be thoroughly intelligible to children, for whom, of course, the whole book has been made. Abrupt transitions are avoided, and with a view to educating the reason as well as the understanding, an effort has been made to have each part naturally and logically connected with what precedes and what follows it. Each subject, moreover, is fully explained and illustrated, often by inductive exercises ; so that no one will call the book a mere skeleton to be filled out with great labor and varying success by teachers. Thoughtful study of the sections in large type and of the illustrative examples will enable the learner without much further help to apprehend the most important principles and to apply them intelligently in the practical exercises which make up more than half the body of the book.

No chapter is entitled Syntax ; but the construction of sentences is developed from the beginning as fast and as fully as practicable, so iv PREFACE.

that a child's acquaintance with verbs, for instance, is by no means deferred until he reaches the chapter so headed. Without intentionally omitting any essential principle, much that has been engrafted upon English grammar from other languages is left out as false or burdensome. The invariable basis of classification for the parts of speech is use, and for inflection it is form. Cases, for example, are always treated as forms, of which the noun has two, and a few pronouns three, the many constructions of these parts of speech being considered separately. In the direction of simplicity verb-phrases are distinguished from simple verbs.

For presenting the analysis of sentences to the eye, a new and simple method is followed. Its value has been thoroughly tested both in illustrative blackboard work and in the preparation of lessons by classes. It is easily applied to all ordinary sentences without rewriting them, or writing them in an extended form. For long or involved sentences other methods are substituted.

The infinitive and the participle receive fuller treatment than is customary, because, being as common and as important as other elements of the sentence, they ought to be equally well understood : and their construction has been developed with a view to making even children see that it is generally the same as that of nouns and adjectives. Without saying that the subjunctive should be abandoned or that it should be preserved, the fact is recognized that in a certain class of expressions nothing else can be used.

The sections that treat of derivation contain only the most elementary statements, but they are inserted with the hope that teachers will give their pupils the pleasure of using this key to the making and meaning of words.

Very little is said of idioms or of elliptical expressions. Such of them as are not too difficult for any but well-advanced students, can be readily explained by one who is familiar with the regular construction.

Contents

PART I. chapter. page.

Introduction 1

I. Learning to Speak well, and learning to Write well . 3

Part II

I. Language and Grammar 1

II. The Sentence : Kinds 5

III. Subject and Predicate 13

IV. Kinds or Words . 23

V. Sentence-building 67

VI. Sentence-analysis . . . • 94

VII. Nouns 103

VIII. Pronouns 141

IX. Adjectives 168

X. Verbs 182

XL Adverbs 231

XII. Prepositions 240

XIII. Conjunctions 244

XIV. Interjections 251

XV. Infinitives and Participles 253

XVI. Phrases, Clauses, and Combined Sentences . . . 274

Index 283

Introduction To Part First

TO TEACHERS.

Besides the ordinary power of speech, there is that higher "language faculty," which like many other natural gifts varies greatly in degree among those who possess it. This difference appears in school and lasts through life.

We note, however, as more important to us, the fact that what develops this faculty is the same for all cases ; namely, observation and practice, rather than reasoning and logical study ; and most persons admit that one must acquire some facility in the use of language before he can properly begin the study of grammar.

But how shall we train a child to a ready use of good English ? It is not enough to say by practice ; for children are daily practising something and somehow, even if left to themselves.

First, then, let us provide something to talk about. Thought must precede expression ; and if from lack of information one's ideas are still meagre and confused, so will be his attempted expression of them. Children talk fluently about such matters as are interesting or familiar to them ; and when a good teacher turns their eyes and their ears to new subjects, these in turn become attractive. But their knowledge is very limited at first ; and until we have made certain that they have resources to draw upon, we must not ask them to talk much nor to write much.

In the second place, besides thus extending the range of familiar subjects, let us set before our pupils the best of models for imitation. They will then be always approaching the best of English even if

Z INTRODUCTION TO PART FIRST.

they do not achieve it; they will have become acquainted with it early in life; and there is much of it that always appeals to them.

Further, we must use every effort to have expression keep pace with knowledge, and so make the possession of it secure.

To speak now more practically, — let it be the first step in every language exercise to see that the children thoroughly understand what it is about. Have them find out the facts, or give them the facts in good form, and then train them to the best forms of expression.

For developing the language faculty, various methods that experience has shown to be of great value, are exemplified under separate headings. Each of these divisions is introduced with explanations or suggestions ; but where the printing of exercises would have defeated the object of them, or where they would have been obviously unnecessary, none are given. If the methods prove to be successful, the credit will be due to the teacher who applies them; for they have to be adapted to attainments and circumstances : and even if those who begin this book have already been fairly w r ell trained in the uses and forms of language, the rule still holds, that practice must be constant.

Do not overlook the need of talking freely with children about their tasks : what they learn with their eyes alone they are likely only to memorize or copy. And above all remember that the maxim of "the more, the better" applies only to what is thoroughly done.

It is by no means intended that this part of the book be used consecutively. Exercises of certain kinds are here grouped together, but the question of which ones and how many to select is left to teachers, for they will be influenced by the varying needs of classes, and by other incidental or imposed requirements.

Chapter I. Learning To Speak Well, And Learning To Write -well

AN EXERCISE IN READING. I.

1. We have to learn to use our language in two different ways. Let us see what they are.

2. When we speak, we use the throat and mouth, and people hear our voices ; when we write, we use the hand, and people see our writing.

3. Spoken words are in the air ; written words are on paper.

4. For carrying our voices, the air is always ready ; for writing-, paper and ink must be prepared.

5. Voices can be heard only a little way off; writing may be read wherever we choose to send it.

6. What we speak is heard at once, or not at all; and even if the echo comes back to us, it will soon be gone forever. What we write is not read till somebody sees it ; we can keep it if we wish, and it may last a thousand years.

7. When speaking, we must not stop between our words to think, since people cannot wait for us ; when writing, we may stop or begin wherever we wish.

8. Our voices rise and fall — now to ask a question, now to emphasize a word. In our writing, we can only put marks of punctuation here and there.

4 LEARNING TO READ AND WRITE WELL.

9. Those who run their words together when they speak are often hard to understand ; if we write our words in a jumble, they are not easily read.

10. We have to take care in speaking, not to mispronounce our words; in writing", not to misspell them.

11. Of voices, some are smooth and some are harsh ; some handwriting looks attractive, and some is most unsightly.

12. We can speak in many different tones, and show that we are merry, or angry, or sad ; what we write looks all alike.

13. When we speak to any one, he usually knows who is talking; when we write letters, we usually sign our names.

14. Talking begins in the nursery ; writing begins in school.

15. We have to speak a thousand words for every one we write.

16. Some men become famous speakers ; some become famous writers. All well-educated persons speak their language well.

17. It is really the same language that we use in these two ways, and the words are the same ; but it is easy to make mistakes in using them, and it takes a great deal of practice to acquire the art of speaking on all subjects both easily and well.

AN EXERCISE IN WRITING. 2.

Copy the paragraphs numbered 2, 3, 5, 8, and 10.

AN EXERCISE IN TALKING. 3.

Tell five ways in which speaking differs from writing.

Chapter II. Talking And Reading

TO THE TEACHER.

[1. Oral vs. "Written Work. Conversation-Lessons. Is not

the importance and the dignity of oral work in language often underestimated? Do we not need to talk well, as much as to write well; and, as a test of culture, does not the English that we speak count for more than what we write ?

It is the greater formality, not the relative importance, of written speech, that betrays us into comparative neglect of what the name language implies. The same words, to be sure, and the same syntax, serve for both ; but, —

(1) The custom of adding to one's available vocabulary can seldom be left to writing, and never to reading ; we do not get possession of a word till we hold it ready for use.

(2) Children must learn to select the appropriate word on the instant ; writing always lets us take our time.

(3) Only by oral practice can we master the principles of agreement and concord, and catch the true spirit of English idiom.

(4) Pronunciation and inflection are more worthy to be studied than the arbitrary and formal rules of spelling and punctuation, to which they correspond ; and

(5) Why should we not strive as much for purity of tone as for the humble excellence of calligraphy ?

Many of the exercises of one sort and another that are given in the following pages, and, in fact, almost any subject that can be made interesting to children, may serve for a conversation-lesson. By questioning, we can find how much they know, and we must somehow induce them to use what knowledge they have. All that we add to this must be made perfectly clear, and the meaning of every word they use after us must be thoroughly understood.

6 TALKING AND READING.

If they have the chance to express their knowledge as soon as they get it, paying some attention to arrangement, and following the best model we can set them, they will surely gain in ease of expression ; and even if their out-of-school English is full of slang and uncouth forms, it will at least have a competitor.

With us, good English is a part of good manners, and ought to last all day. Whether or not we devote a special hour to it, we should exemplify and demand it . as we do good behavior in all our school work. There is room for language-teaching in connection with many another lesson, especially in geography or history. Instead of committing to memory more than a sentence or two, it would be better for the children to give the facts in well-chosen words of their own, rightly pronounced, and properly put together.

Finally, then, on the side of oral language, — it is the tongue, and not the hand, that usually fixes one's habits for good or for bad.]

[2. Reading as a Means of Language Culture. It is likely that reading helps a child more in his school life than any other single form of language instruction. When taught to the best advantage and used as an exercise, it quickly develops the habit of getting thoughts out of a printed page, and so prepares one for general reading. It of course imparts knowledge, and serves as a model for the communication of it.

There should be an abundance of interesting and instructive selections, touching upon various subjects, and adapted to the attainments of the learner. Children seem to understand much that they cannot yet express ; but if questioning has made it certain that the meaning of a paragraph just read is clearly understood, the reader or some classmate should be called upon to reproduce it at once in his own words. This will take more time than the reading itself, but its influence on the quality of the reading will soon be apparent, and it is obviously useful in developing the power to catch a thought and then express it. At the end of the exercise some one may give the gist of the whole lesson, or at another time all may be required to reproduce it in writing.

This system of reading and reproducing orally and in writing, if continued through the whole school course, will make an important part of one's education.]

Chapter III. Copying

[To the Teacher. Those who are learning to write, first copy script models, so as to get the forms of letters and of words; then they copy ordinary print, where, amidst many details, they see how words and sentences are grouped upon a page in lines, paragraphs, and stanzas. It is one thing to form words with a pen: it is quite another to put them on a blank sheet of paper just where they ought to go, writing neatly, accurately, and in an orderly fashion.

This is the principal object to be attained in exercises for copying; -but, directly or indirectly, they serve many other good ends. They prepare the way for understanding all the simple rules for capitals and punctuation; and we know that words often copied come to have a "natural look," which is a guide to correct spelling.

Selections in either prose or verse may be transcribed from the blackboard, from print, or from memory. At first, such exercises will be frequent; as occasional tests, they will always be useful ; and to one who can see his own progress by comparing a former effort, they will be rather interesting.

When the proper writing materials are ready for use, the various directions for indenting, and so on, are to be given orally;. and the copy must be the result of an honest effort to write something legible, neat, and accurate, even if it is not perfect in arrangement.

The paragraphs and the stanzas that are copied with toil and trouble in our school-days are apt to make a lasting impression upon us. Models that have been so carefully studied will not be altogether forgotten, and this makes it worth while to choose them only from the best.

In this book, besides the appended selections and those in Chapter V., there are others scattered here and there that may also serve.]

1. Make a written -copy as nearly perfect as you can. Notice where to leave a margin, and do not omit the punctuation marks, nor misspell any of the words.

2. Learn a selection that you have written, so that you can rewrite every part of it from memory.

8 COPYING.

1. If you would create something, you must be something. Goethe.

2. "Habit is a cable; we weave a thread of it every day, and at last we cannot break it."

3. Be what nature intended you for, and you will succeed. Be anything else, and you will be ten thousand times worse than nothing. Sidney Smith.

The corn-flower's blue cap awry, And the lilies tall lean over the wall To bow to the butterfly, It is July."

5. There is always a best way of doing everything, if it be to boil an egg. Manners are the happy ways of doing

things. Emerson.

6. Robins in the tree-tops,

Blossoms in the grass, Green things a-growing

Everywhere you pass ; Sudden little breezes,

Showers of silver dew, Black bough and bent twig

Budding out anew ; Pine-tree and willow-tree,

Fringed elm and larch, Don't you think Maytime's

Pleasanter than March ? t. b. Aldrich.

SELECTIONS FOR COPYING. 9

7. Small service is true service while it lasts :

Of humblest friends, bright creature, scorn not one ; The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun.

Wm, Wordsworth.

8. " He who loves to read, and knows how to reflect, has laid by a perpetual feast for his old age."

9. Still let it ever be thy pride To linger by the laborer's side ; With words of sympathy or song To cheer the dreary march along Of the great army of the poor.

Longfellow.

10. " Over and over again, No matter which way I turn,

I always find in the book of life

Some lesson I have to learn.

I must take my turn at the mill ;

I must grind out the golden grain; I must work at my task with a resolute will, Over and over again.''

11. " How dismal you look ! " said a Bucket to his companion, as they were going to the well.

"Ah!" replied the other, "I was reflecting on the uselessness of our being filled, for, let us go away never so full, we always come back empty."

" Dear me ! how strange to look at it in that way ! " said the Bucket. "Now, I enjoy the thought, that, however empty we come, we always go away full."

10 COPYING,

12. "Some people," says Alphonse Karr, "are always finding fault with Nature for putting thorns on roses. I always thank her for having put roses on thorns."

13. My fairest child, I have no song to give you ;

No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray ; Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you For every day.

Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; Do noble things, not dream them, all day long : And so make life, death, and that vast forever One grand, sweet song.

Charles Kingsley.

14. Dost thou love life ? Then do not squander time, for that is the stuff life is made of. benjamin Franklin.

15. Queen Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry VIII., was born in 1533. She was five-and-twenty years of age when, Nov. 17, 1558, she rode through the streets of London, from the Tower to Westminster Abbey, to be crowned. She died at Richmond, March 24, 1603.

Elizabeth had been Queen three years when Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, embarked at Calais for Scotland. She sat on deck, weeping, and said many times, "Farewell, France! Farewell, France! I shall never see thee again."

16. " O curfew of the setting sun ! O Bells of Lynn !

O requiem of the dying day ! O Bells of Lynn ! "

Chapter IV. Capitals, Punctuation, Etc

[To the Teacher. The most of those who hegin this book will have already written so much as to follow by force of habit many of the simple rules here presented in review. If not learned, they can be used for reference until it is time to apply those given in Part II.]

I. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS.

1. A Capital Letter should be used to begin —

1. Every sentence.

2. Every line of poetry.

3. Every direct quotation. [See p. 17.]

4. All individual or special names of persons, places, months, and days ; as, —

William Shakespeare, Spain, September, Saturday.

(a) All words made from them ; as, —

Shakespearean ; Spanish.

(5) And all abbreviations of them ; as, — -

Wm, Sept.

5. All names applied to God.

6. The principal words in titles. Thus : —

The President of the United States.

" The Land of the Midnight Sun."

7. The words I and O.

II. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION.

2. The Period [.] must be used after —

I. Every complete sentence that is not a question nor an exclamation.

II. All abbreviations or initial letters.

III. A heading, title, or signature, when used alone.

3. The Question-mark [?] must be used after —

IV. Every complete question.

4. The Exclamation-point [ ! ] must be used after —

V. Every expression that is very exclamatory.

5. The Comma [,] must be used to separate from the rest of the sentence —

VI. The name of the person spoken to. Thus : —

John, come forward.

VII. A direct quotation, or each of the parts of one if it is divided. [See p. 17.]

The Comma must also be used to separate —

VIII. Words and expressions of the same kind when there are not words between to connect them all. Thus: —

The flags were red, white, and blue.

IX. The parts of a sentence that is made up of two or more sentences. Thus : —

We have come, and you must go.

6. The Apostrophe ['] must be used to denote —

X. Possession.

XL The omission of letters in contracted words.

7. Quotation-marks [" "] must be used to enclose —

ABBREVIATIONS.

XII. Every direct quotation, or each of the parts into which it is divided. [See Rule 7 and §§ 14-18.]

XIII. The title of a book or periodical, if the title is long.

8. Italics [Italic letters] are used in printing, for —

XIV. A word that is very emphatic.

XV. Short titles of books ; names of ships ; etc.

In writing we should underline such words or titles.

9. The Hyphen [-] must be used to separate —

XVI. The parts of some compound words.

XVII. The syllables of a word written on different lines.

III. ABBREVIATIONS.

10. Sometimes, instead of writing the whole of a word, we write only a few of the letters of it.

These short forms are called Abbreviations.

Hei

•e are some of the most common forms. There is a full list in the dictionary.

Denoting Time.

Jan.

January.

[Many of the following are abbreviations

Feb.

February.

of Latir i words.]

Mar.

March.

inst.

the present month.

Apr.

April.

ult, the last month.

Aug.

August.

prox.

the next month.

Sept.

September.

M.

noon.

Oct.

October.

A.M.

before noon.

Nov.

November.

P.M.

after noon.

Dec.

December.

B.C.

before Christ.

mo.

month.

A.D.

in the year of our Lord.

CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC.

Titles used before a Name.

Mr. Mister

Rev.

Reverend

Gen. General

Messrs. Messieurs

Hon.

Honorable

Col. Colonel

Mrs. Mistress

Prof.

Professor

Maj. Major

(pron. Missess)

Pres.

President

Capt. Captain

Dr. Doctor

Gov.

Governor

Lieut. Lieuten.

Titles used after a Name.

LL.D. Doctor of Laws

Esq.

Esquire

D.D. Doctor of Divinity

Supt.

Superintendent

Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy

Sec.

Secretary

M.D. Doctor of Medicine

Treas.

Treasurer

A.M. Master of Arts

Sr. '

Senior

A.B. Bachelor of Arts

Jr.

Junior

M.C. Member of Congress

P.M.

Post-Master

Common Names.

Benj. Benjamin

Fred.

Frederick

Sam. Samuel

Chas. Charles

Geo.

George

Theo. Theodore

Dan. Daniel

Jas.

James

Thos. Thomas

Edw. Edward

Jos.

Joseph

Wm. William

Miscellaneous.

Anon. Anonymous

No.

Number

Ave. Avenue p. pp.

page pages

Chap. Chapter

P.O.

Post-Office

Co. County or Compa n y

P.S.

Postscript do. the same

St.

Street or Saint e.g. for example viz.

namely etc. and the rest vol.

volume i.e. that is vs.

against

N.B. Take noti ce and so forth

11. Instead of writing the whole of a person's name, we often write only the first letter of each part of the name These letters are called Initials. So, —

W. S. for Walter Scott ; A. Lincoln for Abraham Lincoln.

PUNCTUATION. 15

Write answers to the following, making complete sentences, and applying the rules for punctuation : —

[The numbers at the end refer to the rules on pages 12 and 13.]

1. What three manufacturing cities are on the Merrimac? (viii)

2. What fruits grow within the tropics ? (viii)

3. -What is the title of the last book that you read? (xiii)

I. Into what do the St. Lawrence and Mississippi rivers flow? (ix)

5. Whose dictionary do you use ? (x)

6. Write the following with three contractions : Do you not think he will say it is too much? (xi)

7. Xame the natural divisions of time, (viii)

8. What materials are used in building houses ? (viii)

9. Ask your teacher a question, using her name and title, (vi ; iv) 10. Give the exact date and time of writing this exercise, and add

your signature, (ii ; iii)

Write the following as six lines of poetry. Indent every other line, beginning with the second. There should be nine capitals.

" I would not hurt a living thing, however weak or small ; the beasts that graze, the birds that sing, our father made them all; without his notice, I have read, a sparrow cannot fall."

Tell why each punctuation-mark is used in these sentences : —

1. How many days are there in a leap year? (iv)

2. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust? (iv ; x)

3. Boys, have you ever read " Tom Brown at Rugby "? (vi; xiii)

4. Now abide th faith, hope, charity, (viii)

5. The houses were low, narrow, and dingy, (viii)

6. Julius Caesar wrote, "I came, I saw, I conquered." (vii; xii)

7. " Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no other." (ix ; xii)

8. Which sounds better, " No, sir, I can't " ; or, " Yes, ma'am, I'll try"? (vii; vi; xi; xii)

CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC.

9. "Little Lord Fauntelroy" was originally published in St. Nicholas, (xiii; ii; xv)

10. "We have met the enemy," wrote Perry to Harrison, "and they are ours." (vii; xii)

11. Come! I tell j^ou to come. See the Red-coats, (v; xiv; xvi)

12. Mr. Jas. H. Mason, Brooklyn, N. Y. (ii; § 41, page 37)

1. Answer these questions orally in complete sentences.

2. Answer them in writing, applying the rules for capitals and punctuation.

1. What is your full name?

2. In what town, county, and state

were you born ?

3. What is your birthday?

4. What is one of your favorite

books ?

5. What newspaper or magazine

do you read?

6. To what foreign lands would

you especially like to go ?

7. What rivers have you ever

crossed ?

8. What holidays do you most

enjoy?

9. Why are they celebrated?

10. Who is governor of the state ?

IV. SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS.

12. The letters that make a word are written close together, but we leave a little space between the words that make a sentence.

Between two sentences we should leave twice as much space as between two words.

13. A Paragraph is a group of sentences more closelyconnected in meaning with one another than with what precedes or follows. A single sentence may make a paragraph. It should begin on a separate line, and a little farther from the margin than the other lines begin.

QUOTATIONS, 17

1. Answer the following questions in sentences, arranging your replies in two paragraphs. Where will the second paragraph begin ?

What is a farmer? What does he do in the spring? In the summer? In the autumn ? What tools does he use ? What does he raise ? What kinds of animals does he keep ? Would you like to be a farmer ? Give your reason.

What is a blacksmith? What is the place in which he works called? Tell the use of his bellows. His anvil. What other tools does he use? Why is his business a useful one?

2. Write two paragraphs comparing the life of a soldier with that of a sailor.

V. QUOTATIONS.

14. When we introduce the exact language of another person into what we are writing, we make what is called a Direct Quotation. Thus : —