The principles of English grammar

Front matter

Class.

Book.

SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT

Preface

Many attempts have been made to illustrate the principles of the Grammar of the English Language, and to adapt the subject of study to the capacity of learners ; and many systems have been given ; all tending to the illustration of the same thing, though differing in the mode of elucidation, they all agree, in the main, as to the end to be accomplished — a correct knowledge of the rules and regulations conducive to a proper development of thought and language.

In the effort of each to explain and illustrate, he has taken up some favorite system or author, as a text book, which he endeavors, in his own phraseology, to explain and simplify ; in the doing of which, doubtless, many valuable improvements have been made and adopted into the general plan of English education ; the tendency of which has been, the curtailment of time, the lessening of the burden, and the removing, to some extent, of the tediousness, and the monotony of acquiring information, calculated to discipline the minds of the young for the business transactions of mature age : an object praiseworthy in itself, commendable in all, and properly appreciated only by those actually engaged in the study.

The author of the following treatise claims no originality in his production, except it be in the system or plan of illustration ; for, he considers himself indebted to others for all he assumes to know ; and for reference for what he offers in the following pages, he would mention the respectable names

IV PREFACE.

of Murray, Kirkham, Bullions, Butler, Clark, Wells, Brown, as authors of eminence and merit. Of these and all others examined by him, he feels at liberty to say, without disparagement to the merit of any, that he considers Lindley Murray's Octavo Grammar of the English Language entitled to his largest share of commendation ; this profession of preference, will, he hopes, find a sufficient apology in the fact of Murray's being an old, generally approved, and well established work, the correctness of which, it is presumed, no genuine Grammarian has ever doubted ; yet he takes pleasure in saying, that he is very much indebted to the authors named, for many useful and elegant examples, and illustrations copied, verbatim, into the body of his work.

If in any instances in the following pages, it may seem that there is a departure from established authority as regards the strict analysis of the language, it is hoped the seeming difference may be seen to be reconcilable by the difference in the manner of illustration, as well as by what the genius of the language, in its simplicity, requires^in close keeping with the common sense principle, upon which the rules and notes are based, and to explain which, the rules and notes are only necessary; for with this principle they must correspond. This consideration, it is believed, will fully explain away, and reconcile any supposed difference in analysis that may occur.

From many years experience in teaching the English Grammar only, the author is satisfied that the system of teaching by familiar lectures, questions and answers, with copious examples illustrative of the rules, &c, in connection also with parsing exercises in prose and poetry, strictly analyzed, is the most successful method of communicating a practical knowledge of the science of the English language. And that it is attended with but a trifling expense of time, tuition, and books, and with far less perplexity to the pupil and teacher, in comparison with the common method of requiring the pupil to memorise and recite the greater portion of the book, perhaps

PREFACE. V

several times over, before he is enabled properly to analyze a single sentence ; when the sole object to be attained, is a knowledge of the correct and strict analysis of the language.

The primary object in the following production, has been to present to the mind of the pupil, the various points of analysis, in the plainest and simplest manner ; ridding the study of thfr grammar of the dryness and monotony, and consequent dislike attendant upon the tedious course ordinarily pursued ; and by interspersing it with a little humorous good-nature and advice, to incite him to the exercise of his own perceptive faculties, so highly necessary in comprehending the principles of the language ; and thereby to render the subject and progress of his studies both agreeable and interesting : without which, the study of the grammar is truly vexatious and often unavailing to the learner, and very far from being pleasant and encouraging to the teacher.

The author is apprised that this preface is already extended beyond the proper limit ; but he cannot consent to dismiss the address without, at least, an expression of gratitude to those who have already so liberally patronized his humble effort in the cause of education ; and of his strongest hope and belief that that class of individuals for whom the work is designed, will find, as respects the elements of useful knowledge, a rich and ample reward in its careful perusal.

The Author.

ADDRESS TO THE PUPIL.

As you are now about to commence the study of one of the most important branches of literature, it is reasonable to suppose you will give that careful attention and consideration which its importance demands. Unless you do this, allow me to say, you will make but little progress. All the books written upon this subject, and all the instruction that you could obtain from competent teachers, could not make you a grammarian, without the concurrence of your own will and effort to understand the principles necessary to be learned. Be not discouraged at the seemingly tedious task ; your willingness to be taught, and your effort to comprehend the subject, will render the study to you delightfully pleasing. Some may, indeed, tell you they were engaged for years with this branch of education, seemingly to little purpose. This may be very true, though, at the same time, it speaks but little to sustain the idea that they had been duly attentive to study. But let not this dissuade you from your purpose ; and by the way, endeavor to have something more gratifying to say of yourself after the lapse of a reasonable time. For your encouragement I will say, I have known many of the young and middle aged, who have acquired a tolerable knowledge of English Grammar having devoted only a few months, or even weeks to the study. Can you not do so as well as they ? Surely you can. The will and the courage to try to understand, are all that are required of you.

Till ADDRESS TO THE PUPIL,

This book is not designed to be memorised : this however, is optional with yourself, or your teacher. To memorise it, or only those parts of it which your instructor may advise as being essential, would contribute to your advancement ; but in the absence of a competent instructor, I advise you, first, to read the book once or twice regularly through, and oftener if you think fit. The tendency of thus reading it, will be to render the subject more familiar to you, and prepare the mind for after study. Having read as above, take up portions of the work in regular order, dwelling longest upon those items that strike your mind with strongest force ; and continue to investigate them until there be a sensible impression made upon your own mind, as to the sense and meaning intended to be conveyed. Begin with the introductory questions, &c, and proceed regularly through Orthography, Etymology and Syntax ; do this at least twice before you take up, properly, the subject of Prosody. It is not to be expected that you will at a glance or *wo, comprehend the full scope of all that is contained in the English Grammar ; but it is expected that you will, at every reviewal of the work, gain something in the way of information both useful and important to you in the development of the principles of language. Therefore be diligent, and as you read, endeavor to digest and properly arrange such ideas as present themselves first, or most forcibly. These ideas (few or many), well understood, will greatly aid you in acquiring further information. So soon as you understand the modifications of the noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, and adverb, and the nature and influence of the other parts of speech, you may expect a rapid progress in the parsing exercises. A little practice and patience in the parsing exercises, after each perusal of Etymology and Syntax, will be of no disadvantage to you; you may, at the conclusion of each reviewal, post up your account, so to speak, and examine yourself as to what you learned in the last perusal.

The questions are designed to place directly before your

ADDRESS TO THE PUPIL. [ x

mind, the jjrinciples to be learned, and the answers are designed to teach you how to learn those principles. It devolves upon you, therefore, to consider the purport of the questions as well as that of the answer and example. You might, possibly, ask many questions in reference to Grammar, but it is not at all likely that you would, without a previous knowledge of the science, ask such questions as would embrace the ideas best adapted to illustrate the principles most necessary to be learned ; and for this reason, you are anticipated, and suitable questions are proposed for your consideration.

The course recommended above, it is hoped, will soon lead you to see and admire what to you now is, perhaps, dark and unmeaning.

And now, my friend, I commend you to your task, hoping, yea, knowing that by your assiduity in accumulating knowledge, it will prove to you both pleasing and profitable whilst engaged in the study, and eventually in regard to your intellect, a blessing lasting as the mind.

»' Our needful knolwedge, like our needful food ; Unhedged, lies open in life's common field ; And bids all welcome to the vital feast."

The Author.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS,

ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE

PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

Introduction

Question. — "What is Grammar?

Answer. — Grammar is the Science of Language.

Q. — What is Language?

A. — Language is the medium through which we communicate our thoughts to one another.

Q. — How is Language divided?

A. — Language is divided into Natural, Artificial, Spoken and Written.

Q. — What is Natural Language?

A. — Natural Language consists in the use of those natural or instinctive signs which animals employ in the expression of thought and feeling, as by the modulation of the voice, peculiar gestures, features, &c.

Q. — What is Artificial Language ?

^..—Artificial Language consists in the use of articulate sounds called words, by means of which mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to each other.

Q. — "What is Spoken Language?

A. — Spoken Language, or speech, is the same as Artificial Language, for it consists in the use of words, or sounds uttered by the human voice to represent ideas, or thoughts passing in the mind.

Q. — What is Written Language?

A, — Written Language consists in the use of characters called letters, and hieroglyphics, or picture writing, which by common consent and general usage are so combined as to form the representatives of words uttered by the human voice.

Q. — What is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of Spoken and Written Language ?

A. — Those forms and associations of words, either Written or Spoken, recognized and practised by those persons deservedly in high estimation on account of their literary attainments, and distinguished as speakers and writers of correct taste, solid matter, and refined manner, constitute the standard of grammatical accuracy of the language of the people by whom it is used.

Q. — How is Grammar divided?

A. — Grammar is divided into two parts, viz. : Universal and Particular.

Q. — What is Universal Grammar?

A. — Universal Grammar is the science of language in common ; or it is the science which explains the principles common to all languages.

Q. — What is Particular Grammar?

A. — Particular Grammar is the conformity to rule, by which the general principles of Universal Grammar are applied to a particular language, modifying them according to its genius, and the standard of grammatical accuracy.

Q. — What is English Grammar?

^1. — English Grammar is the science of the English language ; or it is the art of speaking and writing the English Language with propriety.

Q. — How is English Grammar divided?

A. — English Grammar is divided into four parts, viz. : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

INTRODUCTION. 13

Q. — Upon what do they treat, respectively ?

A. — Orthography treats upon the nature and power of the letters of the English Alphabet; and the proper method of spelling words.

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modification and derivation.

Syntax treats upon the agreement and government of words, and their proper arrangement in a sentence.

Prosody treats of Pronunciation, Punctuation, and the laws of Versification.

SECTION I. Q. — What does Orthography teach ?

A. — Orthography teaches the nature and power of letters, and the just method of spelling words.

Q. — How many letters are there in the English alphabet ?

A. — Twenty-six, viz., abcdefghi jklmnopqrs t u v w x j z.

Q.— How are they divided?

A. — The letters are divided into vowels and consonants,

Q. — What is a vowel ?

A . — A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by a single impulse of the voice ; they are a, e, i, o, u; and sometimes w and y.

Q. — When are w and y vowels ?

A . — W and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable, but in every other situation they are vowels.

Q. — What is a consonant?

A. — A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the aid of a vowel; as, b, d, f, 1, all the letters except the vowels, are consonants.

Q. — How are the consonants divided?

A. — The consonants are divided into mutes, and semi-vowels.

ORTHOGRAPHY SYLLABLES, 15

Q. — -Why are they so called ?

A. — A mute is a letter that cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel ; they are b, p, t, k, and c and g hard.

A semi-vowel is a letter that has an imperfect sound of its own ; they are /, I, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids on account of their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were, into their sounds.

Q. — What is a diphthong?

A. — A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice ; as, ea in beat, ou in sound.

Q. — What is a triphthong ?

A. — A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner ; as, eau in beau ; iew in view

Q. — What is a proper diphthong ?

A. — A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice ; ou in ounce ; and an improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in eagle. oa in boat.

Q. — How shall I obtain a knowledge of the elementary sounds of the letters of the alphabet ?

A. — By a careful study of the elementary principles as taught in spelling-books and dictionaries.

Note. — The elementary sounds of the letters of our alphabet, require much careful study, and to illustrate them here, would occupy larger space than is allowable in this work. The author would suggest the importance of their being properly understood ; and request the pupil to consult the spelling-books and dictionaries of reputable authors, till he is fully acquainted with the elementary sounds.

Section II. Of Syllables And The Rules For Ar- Ranging Them

Q. — What is a syllable?

A. — A syllable is a sound, either simple or compound, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constitutes a word, or part of a word ; as, a, an, ant, pen-knife, ta-ble.

Q. — What is the first general rule for the division of words into syllables?

A. — Rule 1st. A single consonant between two vowels, must be joined to the latter syllable ; as, de-light, bri-dle; except the letter x, as ex-is t, and words compounded ; as, up-on un-even, &c.

Q. — What is the second rule?

A.-— Rule 2d. Two consonants proper to begin a word must not be separated ; as, fa-ble : but when they come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided ; as, ut-most, er-ror, insect.

Q. — What is the third rule ?

A. — Rule 3d. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced long, they are not to be separated; as, depone ; but when the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, one of the consonants always belongs to that syllable ; as, dis-tract, dis-prove.

Q.—- What is the fourth rule ?

A. — Rule 4th. When three or four consonants, which are not proper to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them as can begin a syllable, belong to the latter, the rest of them, to the former syllable; as, abstain, corn-plain, contain.

Q._ What is the fifth rule ?

A, — Rule 5th. Two vowels not being a diphthong, must be divided into separate syllables ; as, cru-el, de-ni-al.

Q.— -What is the sixth rule ?

A . — -Rule 6th. Compound words must be traced into the simple words of which they are composed; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over -power*

Q. — What is the seventh rule ?

A. — Rule 7th. Grammatical and other particular terminations are generally separated ; as, teach-est 9 teach-eth, contend' est, wretch-ed, teach-ing, &c.

ORTHOGRAPHY SPELLING. 17

Section III. Of Words In General

Q. — What is a word?

A. — A word is an articulate sound, used by common consent as the sign of an idea.

Q. — What is aii idea?

A. — An idea is the image of a thing in the mind ; a thought, a word, is its representation, by which we impress, as it were, the same image upon other minds.

Q. — How are words classed?

A . — Into two classes, Primitive and Derivative.

Q. — What is a Primitive word?

A. — It is a word that cannot be reduced to a simpler word of its kind in the language ; as, man, good, content.

Q. — What is a Derivative Word ?

A. — It is a word that may be reduced to a simpler word of its kind in the language ; as, manful, goodness, contentment ; all compound words are classed with the derivatives ; as, pen-knife, ink-stand, &e.

Q.-~ How are words otherwise classed ?

A. — Words are otherwise thrown into four classes:

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable :

A Dyssyllable is a word of two syllables :

A Trissyllable is a word of three syllables : and

A Polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

Q.— What is the first rule for spelling ?

A. — Rule 1st. Monosyllables ending with f, 1, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the f, 1, or s; as, staff, mill, pass. The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus.

Q.~What is the second rule ?

A. — Rule 2d. Monosyllables ending with any consonant, except f, 1, or s, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant; excepting, add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz.

J*

Q.~-What is the third rule?

A, — Rule 3d. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing the y into i; as, spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carrieth, or carries ; carrier, carried ; happy, happier, happiest.

The present participal retains the y that i may not be doubled ; as, carry, carrying. But y preceded by a vowel in such cases as the above, is not changed into i; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys; except in the words lay, pay, say ; from which are formed laid, paid, said, and their compounds, unlaid, unpaid, &c.

<?.♦— What is the fourth rule ?

A. — Rule 4th. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly change y into i; as, happy, happiness. But when the y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed into i in the additional syllable ; as, joy, joyful, joyless, &c.

Q.— What is the fifth rule ?

A. — Rule 5th. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant, which is preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant when they take another syllable beginning with a vowel; as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish; to abet, abettor ; to begin, beginning. But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant remains single; as, toil, toiling ; to offer, an offering ; maid, maiden, &c.

Q. — What is the sixth rule ?

A. — Rule 6th. Words ending with any double letter but I, taking ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double; as harmlessness, carelessly, successful, &c. But those words which end with double I, and take ness, less, ly or ful after them, generally omit one I ; as, full, fulness, skill, skilful, skilless.

Q. — What is the seventh rule?

^ # — Rule 7th. Ness, less, ly, ful, or ment, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful) abatement; except a few words; as due, duly;

ORTHOGRAPHY SPELLING. 19

true, truly; awe, awful; judge, judgment ; abridge, abridgment; acknowledge, acknowledgment ; and perhaps a few others.

Q. — What is the eighth rule ?

A. — Rule 8th. Able, ible, ing or ish added to words ending with silent e, almost always cut it off; as, blame, blamable; cure, curable; sense, sensible; place, placing; slave, slavish ; &c. But if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with able; as, change, changeable; peace, peaceable.

Q. — What is the ninth rule ?

A. — Rule 9th. Words taken into composition, often drop those letters which were superfluous in the simple words ; as, handful, withal, chilblain.

PAET II.

ETYMOLOGY.

Section I. A General View Of The Parts Of Speech

Q. — Of what does Etymology treat ?

A. — Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications and derivations.

Q. — What is meant by modification ?

A. — A word is said to modify, or qualify, limit, or restrict another when its influence has a tendency to change or alter the meaning of that other word from what it would otherwise be, were it left alone. Words are also modified in assuming different forms as in the declension, comparison, conjugation &c; as well as by assuming different relations in regard to other words in the sentence.

Q. — What is meant by derivation ?

A. — A word is said to be derived from another, when it can be traced to a lower or simpler word of its kind.

Q. — How many words are there supposed to be in the English language ?

A. — The number of words in the English language, is variously reckoned to he between forty and eighty thousand ; the latter number is thought to include proper names, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives ; the former number, to exclude them.

ETYMOLOGY PARTS OF SPEECH. 21

Q. — How shall we form an acquaintance with so vast a multitude of words ?

A. — By attending carefully to the classification, and the guides hereafter to be given, as rules of Etymology and Syntax.

Q.-+- How are the words classed ?

A. — The words of the English language are embraced in ten classes, or sorts, called parts of speech ; and, according to orderly arrangement, stand thus:

1. Noun. 5. Verb. 8. Preposition.

2. Article. 6. Participle. 9. Conjunction.

3. Adjective. 7. Adverb.

4. Pronoun. 10. Interjection.

Q. — Why is this order, as to numbering the parts of speech, necessary f £

A. — The utility of the orderly arrangement will be seen and appreciated, when the definitions and offices of the ten parts of speech are explained ; for, by the order of arrangement, the ten parts are themselves so classed as to show more clearly their nature and offices.

Q. — What is the definition of the noun ?

A. — A noun is the name of any thing that can be known or mentioned ; as, man, tree, virtue, wisdom. A noun may be known by its making sense by itself; and also by its taking either of the articles; a, an, or the, before it; as, a man; an apple; the woman.

Q. — What is an article ?

A. — An article is the word a, an, or the, placed before a noun to point it out, and to show how far its signification extends ; as, a man ; the man ; an apple ; the apple ; the book ; or the books ; &c.

Q. — What is an adjective ?

A. — An adjective is a word added to a noun, to express its quality, character, or kind ; or to restrict its meaning ; as, a good man ; a tall tree ; a sweet apple. An adjective may be known by its making sense with the word thing, or any other noun right after it ; as, a good thing, a bad thing ; high, low, round, smooth, (fee.

Q, — What is a pronoun ?

A. — A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent the too frequent use of the same word ; as, /, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, or you, and they ; as, the man is happy ; he is benevolent; he is useful.

Q. — What is a verb ?

A. — -A verb is a word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer; as, I am, I rule, I am ruled. A verb may in general be known by its making sense with the word to before it ; as, to walk, to sing, to play, to fly.

Q. — What is a participle ?

A. — A participle is a word derived from a verb, and participates the nature of a verb and also the nature of an adjective ; and always refers to some noun or pronoun denoting its subject or actor; as, "I saw a man walking by the door;" "John, having finished his lesson, retired ;"" The bow well forc^, &c. — ztt'ce seems already slain."

Q. — What is an adverb ?

A. — An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, a, participle, an adjective, or sometimes another adverb : as, "he reads correctly; I saw a man walking briskly; a truly good man; he writes very correctly :" An adverb may in general be known by its answering the question, how? when? where? or why ?

Q. — What is a preposition ?

A. — A preposition is a word that serves to connect other words, and by its nature, to show what kind of relation exists between the words so connected ; as, " He went from Nashville to Winchester, by railroad, in three hours.' ' The relation is here shown between the verb went, and the nouns following the prepositions from, to, by, in.

Q. — What is a conjunction ?

A. — A conjunction is a word that serves to connect sentences, so as, out of two or more simple sentences, to make but one compound sentence ; as "James went to town today, but he will return soon." "John or Edward will be here

ETYMOLOGY OFFICE OF WORDS. 23

to-day," — "two and three are five/' — sometimes the conjunction only connects words, as in the last example.

Q. — What is an interjection ?

A. — An interjection is a word, or words, thrown in between the parts of a sentence to express the passion, or sudden emotion of the speaker or writer ; as, 0! Oh! Ah! Alas! as, 0! I have alienated my friend ! Alas ! I fear for life !

A SYNOPSIS OF THE TEN PARTS OF SPEECH, OR THE OFFICE OF WORDS.

1 Q. — What is the office of the noun ?

A. — Its office is to represent by name, the person or thing which is the subject matter of discourse ; as well as the names of things occurring in the discourse, in connection with the subject.

Q. — What is the office of the article ?

A. — Its office is to restrict or limit, either definitely, or indefinitely, the signification of nouns as names of things occurring in discourse.

Q. — What is the office of the adjective? A. — Its office is to modify or qualify, in some sense or other, the sense, meaning or latitude of nouns.