Original handbook for riders; a complete guide to modern horsemanship

Front matter

§3 1 kP<,

ONC

^tf v^ n

Preface

Having been frequently asked by my pupils for some simple work on horsemanship, which they might study in connection with their practical riding lessons, I have undertaken to supply that apparent want by writing this book. It contains nothing new to the fully experienced rider; those less experienced will, it is hoped, find in it the necessary assistance. If so, my purpose will be achieved, and still more so, if it may lead to a more rational and humane treatment of our most noble domestic animal, the Horse.

Contents

First Part. Page

The Rider's Dress i

The Riding Horse 5

II. Throat groove or joint)

throttle.

Pastern.

Mouth (the tooth-

Fetlock (tuft).

less part of the lower

Coronet.

jaw is called the

Hoof or foot (Fig.

interdental space or

5, B) consisting of bar).

(a) plantar surface of

Crest.

wall; (b) sole; (c)

Withers.

frog; (d) bar; (e)

IS-

Chest (breast).

bulb of heel; (/)

Shoulder point.

toe; (fg) wall; (gh)

Shoulder 1

blade. \ , , e .

1 shoulder.

quarter, and (i) the white line.

Arm. 1

Elbow.

II. Middle part.

Forearm.

Back.

Knee.

Belly.

Shank (canon bone

Sides.

and back tendons).

3 1 -

Flanks.

Loin.

III. Hind part.

S3. Croup.

34. Point of the hip.

35. Thigh.

36. Stifle.

37. Hock.

36 to 37. Lower thigh or gaskin.

Fig. 6 shows a fore hoof, Fig. 7 a hind hoof.

Riding, to be of any service or pleasure, must, of course, depend in great part on the horse. A faultless looking animal may, on account of its disposition and behaviour, become a plague to the rider. Inasmuch as tastes differ so widely, I would advise every rider, who has the opportunity,

Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

to try his proposed mount himself, before he decides thereon. If obliged to use the judgment of another, it is preferable that the person making the choice should have ridden a horse, meeting the approval of his principal. The animal should always be tried by actual riding; for, even during mounting, it may display tendencies which would not please its prospective rider.

The paces of a riding horse should be sure and progressive, but of a slow tempo; short stepping horses are a great nuisance. The riding horse should have a lively but gentle temper and be free from nervousness. The eyes and ears are good indications of its disposition.

One must not forget to study the horse when in its stall and at different times and under different conditions; for example, when it is groomed, fed and saddled.

The height of the horse should be in some proportion to that of his rider, to avoid too great lack of harmony in appearance. The measurement of a horse should be taken from the ground to the highest point of the withers and is reckoned by hands and inches or by centimeters — one hand (4 inches) being equal to 10.2 cm.

In appearance the riding horse should conform substantially to the following rules:

The head should be light but not too short, as it is the lever on which the reins act.

The eyes should be large, clear, and have a lively but steady and kindly look. Eyes in which much of the white shows indicate bad temper. Wall-eyes are those in which the iris is dull white.

The ears should be lean, narrow and upright; hanging ears are, as a rule, a sign of sluggishness. Vicious horses turn their ears backward. Those which shy show a nervous twitching of the ears.

The space between the branches of the lower jaws should be wide, the jowl not too broad and the parotid glands short, narrow and standing out plainly.

The poll, that is the joint between the first vertebra of the neck and the head, must not be too thick or broad, and the upper line formed by it and the neck, i.e., the crest, should be a continuous one, of which the top of the head, i.e., the poll, should be the highest point.

The neck should be broadest at the shoulder, decrease gradually towards the poll and have a sharp edge. Long and thin, as well as short and thick, necks are undesirable. A neck is said to be lopping over when the crest, on account of the weight of the neck, hangs over to one side.

The withers should be prominent and rather inclined to slant evenly off towards the back than to be short and high.

The shoulder should be long and sloping, the chest deep but not too broad. The fore legs should stand straight up and down with muscular forearm, dry and clean cannon bone and back tendons. The pasterns should slant at an angle of about 45 degrees and should not be too long. The joints should be strong and broad.

The back should be short and straight, the loin broad and from the back pass imperceptibly to the croup, which, in turn, should be broad, long and, when viewed from behind, rounded. It should not be pointed and sloping. The tail should be placed high and hang freely down, not pinched in between the hind legs, nor be in a continual nervous motion. The hind legs must

— IO —

neither be behind the horse nor too far under him. The hocks should be strong and broad and neither bent outward nor inward. A horse with hocks bent inward is called cowhocked. The same distance between fore feet as between hind feet is most desirable.

In a well shaped hoof the line from the coronet down to the toe should form an angle of 45 degrees with the ground on which it stands; at the quarters it should be wide, and the colour of the horn dark; light coloured horn is, as a rule, brittle and shelly.

The age of a horse may be judged in part from its appearance; as years pass the grooves over the eyes become deeper, grey hairs show themselves on the head, the underlip hangs, and the formerly rounded parts of the body become sharp.

The lifetime of a healthy, strong, and in every respect well treated horse of good breed, may be divided into three periods:

i. The development, which lasts until and including the 6th year.

2. The powerful age from the 7th through the 14th year.

3. The age in which it gradually, declines, beginning with the 15th year.

The surest signs of the age of the horse are the teeth. These are of two kinds: temporary or milk-teeth, and those which are permanent and are called horse-teeth. The difference lies in their size, shape and colour; the permanent teeth being

— II — larger, the crown nearly of the same breadth as the bottom and with grooves alongside, and of a darker colour than the milk-teeth.

The fully developed horse has 12 incisors (nippers), 24 molars (grinders) and 4 tusks (bridle teeth). The last are, as a rule, only found in the male animal; they are placed between the nippers and the grinders and are not changed. (Fig. 8).

The age of a horse is judged by the growth, appearance and position of the nippers. The foal within a few days of its birth gets its first pair of nippers (the centrals), about five weeks later the next pair (the laterals) appear and after the fifth month the last pair (the corner teeth) . At the age of one year the foal has all its nippers, but the number of molars is as yet only 12.

After that time and until the age of 4% years it is the changing of teeth in combination with their wear, which indicates the age of the animal.

In'glancing at the table surface of the crown of a nipper, we find in its middle a dark groove, called the "mark"; it is the presence of this on the different teeth and in a different degree which is the surest sign of the age of the horse. As the tooth grows and its surface wears off, the mark becomes smaller and at last disappears, leaving but a white ring. The mark disappears first from the oldest teeth; it has on the top the same shape as the tooth, and it is this last named point, together with the want of the ring of enamel, that surrounds the mark, which makes it possible to

easily dis-

* cover frauds

( bishoping )

through ar-

Sometimes a <<sai jf

Fig. 9. tificially produced marks (Fig. 9). efforts are also made to make a horse look older than he is in reality; this is done by pulling out one or another pair of milk-teeth, as by such an operation the permanent teeth may appear earlier.

In the case of cribbers the age may be decided by the corner teeth, which do not wear off by biting the crib.

At the age of 2 years the mark has disappeared from the middle teeth and partly from the laterals, but on the corner teeth is yet visible.

At the age of 2^ years the mark has disappeared from the nippers, the centrals fall out and are replaced by permanent teeth (Fig. 10), which grow so rapidly that they already show wear at the age of 3 years (Fig. 11).

At the age of ^}4 years the laterals are changed (Fig. 12) ; the horse thus has at the age

Fig.

Fig. it.

of 4 years four permanent teeth, which already have commenced to wear off. Six months later, as a rule, the corner teeth change (Fig. ij) and the tusks appear.

At the age of 5 years the front of the corner teeth commence to wear and they present a shelllike condition, though it is possible that a single milk corner tooth may yet be left.

Usually at the age of 6 years the mark on the centrals has disappeared and the corner teeth are in wear throughout the whole table surface (Fig. 14).

On a 7 -yearold horse the mark has quite disappeared from the centrals and only shows in a small spot on the laterals (Fig. 15). Often Fig. 13.

V

H at [this age the corner teeth in the^upper jaw commence forming a small hook (Fig. 16).

At the age of 8 years the mark has quite disappeared from the laterals and nearly from the corner teeth (Fig. 1?).

After the 8th year the age of the horse can not be decided with any great degree of certainty. As signs of the more advanced age of the horse may be noted: The increasing length of the teeth, their rounded surface and their dull, yellow colour; still further the semi-circular row of teeth gradually tends towards forming a straight line and the jaws begin to form towards each other a very acute angle (Fig. 18).

In order to examine the teeth of the horse, talk gently to him and, while stroking his forehead and nose, try to open his lips. If the animal snatches its head back, do not use force, but start quietly in the same manner again.

To make the horse open his mouth one may also seize it around the under jaw with one hand, and with the other seize the tongue behind the nippers . and pull it out at the side.

In examining the teeth, the nature of the bars should also be ascertained ; if they are uneven and scarred, or if the underlip is folded over them (double bars), it is a sign of ''dead mouth," that is, that the horse is hard-mouthed.

The defects most frequently found in riding horses will be hereinafter described under "Treatment of Sick Horses."

As those qualities, which are required in a good riding horse, principally are found in well-bred i6 animals, it is difficult to understand why anybody should take the risk of disappointment and give the trainer unnecessary difficulty by acquiring a riding horse that is not well bred.

In examining and judging riding horses, one ought to consult not only a capable veterinarian but an experienced rider as well; but be warned against listening to all the good advice so frequently offered to one, for human nature is not yet perfect. It was a horsedealer who once made the remark: "In horse-dealing nobody is to be trusted; at that time I scarcely trust myself."

The Stable and its Management.

As riding horses, as a rule, during the greater part of the year, are kept in the stable from 21 to 22 hours out of the 24, it must be understood how necessary it is that the stable be arranged as appropriately as possible.

Sufficient space, fresh air, light and absence of draught and damp are the principal conditions for the welfare of the horse in the stable.

As stables frequently fail to meet these requirements, and at the same time one may be put to the necessity of using them, I shall, in the following paragraphs, give some information and quite ordinary advice, through which their defects may be partly remedied.

A spacious stall is one in which the horse can lie on his side at full length, with his legs stretched out and his neck and head resting on the floor without knocking the poll against the wall of the stall. For a riding horse of ordinary size a width of 6 feet to 6 feet 6 inches is required and a length of about io feet 6 inches. The floor behind the stalls ought to be 6 feet 6 inches in width. The walls of the stall should be of the same length as its floor and at the head high enough to prevent the horse, when tied, from taking hold of the upper edge with his teeth, which occasionally develops "cribbers."

In old stables the walls and floor have to be examined to see if they are tight, and the latter if it be sufficiently strong to prevent the horse from treading through.

It frequently happens that the stall-floor in old stables is saturated with ammonia gradually accumulated, through a long period, from the heaped-up manure. In such a case, it may be necessary to take up the planks, thoroughly scour, air and dry them, or if they be rotten, replace with new. The foundation should also be scoured and sprinkled with chloride of lime, crushed charcoal and tanbark, whereupon the planks, after being tarred, are placed on two or three pieces of wood crossways, that they may not rest too close to the foundation save at the back. For draining, the floor of the stall should be given a slight slant (i in ioo), and in the passageway, close behind the stalls, holes should be made about %, inch in diameter and lined with zinc.

i8

It must be remembered that all these preparations are intended for old stables, where drainage has been neglected or does not exist.

I believe it to be an advantage to be without rack and fixed manger, as a bore wall does not afford any temptation to the horse to learn bad habits or injure himself. Added to this, as the horse by nature takes his food from the ground, it would seem more rational to have the food placed on the floor than up on the wall. If the floor be clean and if the horse get no more hay than he can eat, he will soon learn to be careful with the food and to waste nothing. When oats are fed, a loose manger of wood is used which is placed on the floor in front of the horse and which should be taken away as soon as the food is eaten. Such mangers are lined on the inside and over the edge, with plates of zinc and should be wide but not so deep as to prevent the animal from easily reaching its food.

If the horse kicks against the walls, through which capped hock is easily developed, straw mats, or still better, canvas with straw- filling are applied. By such an arrangement the rubbing of the point of the hip is albo prevented, should the animal be disposed to that habit.

If the accumulation of manure in cellars under the stable can be avoided, at least during the warmer weather, it will greatly improve the purity of the usual stable air. If there be no ventilation in the roof, an air-pipe, made of four boards and with shutter underneath, should be run through the roof. By opening or closing the shutter the changing of air can be regulated. The air-pipe is placed above the passageway and not above the stalls.

The light should not fall from the sides nor directly into the eyes of the animal, but preferablv from above or from behind.

If the hay be kept in the loft over the stable, a trap door, through which it may be thrown down, should be placed above the passageway and not right above the head of the horse; this arrangement will prevent the dust and seed, which follows the hay, from falling on the head and into the eyes of the animal or being inhaled by it.

The constant standing and usual hard work during use, from which, in particular, riding

horses' legs suffer, should lead us to provide as much rest for them as may be possible; this may be obtained by tying the animal in the stable so that it can stand up or lie down as it pleases. Fig. 19 shows such a method of tying a horse: An iron staple is driven well into the front wall about

12 inches from the floor and midway between the walls; through an iron ring on the staple the halter-rope is fastened. If the horse, tied in this manner, gets his fore leg over the rope he will usually be able to free the leg without help. During grooming and saddling, to prevent the horse from biting or interfering with the

groom, an iron ring is fastened to the wall above the staple and about level with the nose of the animal; through this ring the rope may be passed.

Precautions should be taken with animals that are in the habit of opening the fastening with their lips.

If the horse is in the habit of frequently putting his leg over the rope and, while so doing, becoming very nervous, the method pictured in Fig. 20 is preferable; the rope is then placed over an iron pulley, which is fastened to the wall with strong screws; to the lower end of the rope is fastened a leather bag filled with lead or sand. To prevent the bag from sticking fast, if the horse should pull violently upon the rope, a wooden ball is strung on the rope. If the horse is in the habit of pawing much with his fore feet so as to damage the rope and the leather bag, these may either be put through a wooden shaft with well rounded edges, or the rope may be passed through a hole in the wall so as to bring the lower part thereof and the weight on the other side.

If the horse is in the habit of turning around in the stall, two ropes have to be used — one on each side of the halter.

The surest and most practical means of preventing the horse from biting the crib is to take away from the stall everything which might furnish a grip for the teeth.

The muzzle is ordinarily used as a protection against biting the crib; its advantages and defects seem to speak for themselves.

I have seen cribbers take a grip with their teeth even on the toe of a fore hoof. In such case a muzzle is the only means of prevention.

I have tried almost every imaginable cure for biting the crib but all without success; the horse bit through the sheep's wool nailed on, enjoyed licking the tar and aloes with which I had everything painted over and bit the crib nevertheless, etc. To punish the animal every time it bites the crib will only result in it becoming vicious in the stable. Only by removing from the stall everything which might furnish a grip for the teeth have I succeeded in preventing, but not curing, this habit of crib biting.

For horses that champ the air without taking a grip with the teeth, there is scarcely any remedy.

Standing still to the horse is like idleness to the human being — "the root of all evil"; for this reason the animal should have plenty of exercise in the fresh air and occupation in the stall. The latter may be provided by giving it many meals and by giving it plenty of good straw for bedding. For occupation cribbers are also given the so-called bit with keys.

Horses, with such a ravenous appetite that they eat most of their straw bedding, should, instead of being tied short (which is cruel), have muzzle on. Muzzles must be kept clean.

On horses, that bite their stable-cloths to pieces, a piece of stiff leather may be fastened around the under jaw to the noseband of the halter (Fig. 21).

Manure ought to be taken away from the stall as soon as it has fallen; at all events this must be done at every feeding time. If the manure

cannot be taken out of the stable directly, it must in every case be done morning, noon and evening. When the horse is taken out for use, the stall should be well cleaned before his return.

During the warm season and in dry weather it will do no harm occasionally to scour the floor of the stall.

The holes made in the floor for the purpose of draining are always to be kept open.

In the morning, after the cleaning of the crib and after the 'first feed of oats has been given, and before the horse is groomed, the bedding should be taken from under the horse, and the stall and passageway swept. If the temperature permits, and especially if the stable is badly ventilated, the doors and windows should be kept open, and also during the grooming. After every grooming the stable should be well swept and the stall strewn with sawdust.

If the hay be given on the floor, the latter must be thoroughly swept beforehand.

After the horse has finished his first work for the day, or in any case before noon, he should have plenty of straw bedding, to be partly renewed in the evening with fresh straw, the dirty and wet bedding being taken away. At the same time the fastening of the tie is examined.

Upon going into the stable early in the morning, you will find the greater part of the bedding lying in the passageway behind the horse; therefore the straw, when first laid down, should be placed well forward in the stall. To prevent the straw from slipping behind the horse during the night, a board may be placed at the back and set down in grooves on the stall posts; in the daytime this board is taken away; such an arrangement requires sufficient length of stall.

The cleanliness of the stable is greatly improved by frequently strewing the floors with sawdust or wood shavings, especially after removing the manure.

Where peatmoss can be easily had, it is cheaper than straw, as well as air purifying, and a warm and beneficial bedding for the legs and hoofs of the horse; the animal soon becomes familiar with the odour which comes from peatmoss directly after it is put down. When used for bedding the peatmoss should be dry and without lumps. However, it has the disadvantage of impeding the grooming of the horse, whereas sawdust and shavings facilitate it.

In stables where no permanent attendant is kept and where strange horses may be placed, there should be movable safety-bars behind the stalls or across the passageway from the stall posts over to the opposite wall, according to whether it is a stable with a single or a double row. These safety-bars are arranged in such a manner as to prevent loose horses from lifting them up by placing their necks thereunder. .

No matter how well a stall may be arranged, there is nothing so good for the riding horse as the box-stall about 13 feet square and with walls sufficiently high to prevent the animal from reaching the top with its teeth. The upper part of the walls should be an open partition.

During the dark part of the year the stable should be lighted from dusk until the stable is arranged for the night. In the morning the stable should be lighted until daylight.

— 25 — Feeding and Watering.

Fodder for the riding horse should consist of hay, oats, straw, and occasionally bran.

The hay should be absolutely dry, not too fine, have a fresh green colour and an aromatic odour. Timothy mixed with flowery species of grass is considered good horsefeed. New hay, especially if it is not quite dry, should be avoided. Before the hay is given to the horse, the dust and seed should be well shaken out and the hay afterwards put together in bundles.

When green fodder can be obtained it is advisable to give the riding horse a few handfuls of it daily, but the grass must be fresh, not wet and not entirely clover. To turn riding horses out to pasture is risky, and it should only be done for the sake of their health — when recommended by the Veterinarian — and then only when there is full security for the particular instructions being complied with. A riding horse turned out on grass should not have less than 3 quarts of oats per day; he must have ample supply of fresh water, shelter against the weather and not be in want of grooming.

Good oats should be well cleaned, dry, free from mouldy smell and weigh about 40 lbs. per bushel. The colour has little to do with regard to the quality of the oats; black may be as good as yellow, but they must not be mettled. Just before the oats are given to the horse, they should be dampened with fresh water. Crushed oats are considered very economical, as the feed is better assimilated, but it has the disadvantage of weakening the functions of the stomach and it may injure the functions of the lungs, and is frequently swallowed without being masticated, in this way not being mixed with the saliva; this is not the case with bruised oats which compel the animal to masticate. Crushed or bruised oats may be serviceable for very old or sick horses, when much unmasticated grain is found in the droppings.

The straw should be dry, free from dust, rust and mouldy odour. The best straw for fodder comes from barley or oats. As fodder the straw is used either in the shape of chaff or in its natural form. The chaff should be about the same length as the grains of the oats and be cut evenly; it is given together with the oats, and, like these, it should be dampened ; a riding horse ought not to have more than a handful of it to each portion of oats. If the horse masticates the oats properly, leaving but little or nothing appearing as undigested, the chaff may be completely done away with and especially so if the horse is inclined to nibble the straw from the bedding.

Rye- and wheat-straw being of the least nutritive value, it is generally used for bedding.

Hay, as well as oats and straw, should have been kept some time after harvesting before being used as fodder.

When used in small quantities carrots are beneficial to the digestion. In case of sickness, when the animal loses its appetite, for instance, catarrh, typhoid fever, pneumonia, jaundice and other diseases, carrots have proved to be an excellent feed; five or six medium-sized carrots a day have proved able to keep up the strength of the patient during quite a long time, not only because they in themselves contain a good deal of easily-digested nutritive material, but also because by that means the appetite for other fodder is stimulated. Instead of bread and sugar, with which lovers of horses like to reward their animals, carrots are much to be preferred; they should be well cleaned from earth and be cut in thin slices before they are given.

The quantity of fodder depends upon the size of the horse and the work which is required of him. The times for feeding should, as a rule, always be the same. Supposing a riding horse of medium size, well developed and broken in, gets sufficient exercise, that is to say, 2 to j hours daily, the ration per day may be put at:

10 qts. of oats, 10 lbs. of hay and 7 lbs. of straw ;

on 1 to 2 hours' daily exercise: 9 qts. of oats, 9 lbs. of hay and 7 lbs. of straw;

and on 1 hour's daily exercise : 7 qts. of oats, 8 lbs. of hay and 7 lbs. of straw;

(the straw principally used for bedding) .

During training even up to 18 or 20 qts. of oats may be given daily, and there have been cases, during very hard riding, when horses have eaten up to 28 qts. a day (24 hours) and have stood it well; under such circumstances the quantity of oats might very well be arranged according to the appetite of the animal, but the ration of hay ought, as a rule, not to exceed 10 lbs.

Feeding the animal just before and after being used should, if possible, be avoided, and then especially the latter. It is advisable not to give hay just before and oats just after the ride ; at all events not the latter before the breathing is slowed down to about 10 respirations a minute. If, for some reason or other, the horse does not eat up all the fodder which is given him, the leavings should be taken away; mixing the new with the old fodder has generally shown that the animal touches neither of them. Altogether it is of importance to keep the feed boxes clean, as it stimulates the appetite and is economical of the food.