A shorter course in woodworking; a practical manual for home and school

Front matter

A PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HOME AND SCHOOL

CHARLES G. WHEELER

Class T^T^l30

Contents

PAGE

To Teachers .......... vii

Introductory .......... i

PART II. — Operations in Shaping, Fitting, and Finishing Wood 139

Wood. — A few elementary principles of construction. — Some practical problems in drawing and laying out work. Some types of construction.

INTKODUCTORY

1. The Process. — Before any complete article can properly be made in woodworking, one must learn its construction, what materials are to be used, and what tools are needed and how to use them.

First, the shape, size, and all the details of the object should be decided upon and understood, and a working drawing with dimensions be made,' (See page 217.)

Second, the most suitable materials must be decided upon, — the kind of wood, hardware, and other things necessary. ^

Next, the material must be selected and the "stock" got out. To do this the dimensions must be measured and the outlines of the piece or pieces marked out on the wood. Usually these are got out a little too large with saws or other tools and afterwards reduced by planing and other operations to the exact required dimensions.

Finally, the various pieces must be fitted together in accordancewith the plan, and the whole smoothed and finished.

2. Estimating, Laying out Work, and Getting out Stock. — An

• Whether this drawing should be made by the pupil or be provided for him must depend upon the circumstances and the nature of the work, but he should have a drawing to work £rom in every case.

2 Sometimes it is necessary to do this, wholly or partly, before making the working drawings.

estimate of materials and cost should be made before beginning any but the simplest work. Make liberal allowance for waste which varies with every job and can rarely be foretold exactly. The beginner should have thoroughly seasoned, clear, straight-grained, dry stock. (See page 201.)

The unit of lumber measurement is the "board foot," or "square foot," which means a volume one foot square and one inch thick. This contains 144 cubic inches, and any piece of wood containing 144 cubic inches is a board foot, without regard to its shape. Most lumber is sold by the square foot, the price being set by the M (1000 feet). Thus, if pine boards are selling at $100 an M, one foot will cost ten cents.

A board i" thick, 12" wide, and 12' long^ contains 12 feet, board measure, or 12 square feet. A board i" thick, 6" wide, and 12' long contains 6 square feet. Thus to measure twelve-foot stock simply find the width in inches. If the board tapers, measure at the middle. In case of a plank ^ multiply the width in inches by the thickness of the plank. A plank 3" thick, 7" wide, and 12' long contains 21 square feet. This method is easily applied to pieces of which the length or width is a convenient multiple or divisor of twelve.

Boards less than one inch thick are usually sold by the square foot of surface, — the price varying according to the thickness, except where an inch board is planed down, when, of course, inch thickness is charged for. There is no distinction in measuring made between a rough board i " thick and a planed board |" thick, as they represent the same amount of lumber.

Some rare woods are sold by the pound, as ebony, leopard- wood, etc. Pieces turned out in quantities for special uses, as strips, mouldings, etc., are often sold by the running foot. Certain regular sizes and shapes of lumber are sold by the hundred or by the piece. Shingles, clapboards, and laths come in bunches or bundles. For other matters relating to Wood, see page 20 1 .

The first, or rough dimensions, for small work, should usually be, for the beginner, about one eighth of an inch greater in thickness than the

' The symbol " means inches and ' means feet. ' Planks are more than i " thick.

Introductory 3

final dimensions, about one quarter of an inch greater in width, and about one-half inch, or so, greater in length.

A list, or lumber order, of all the pieces, arranged according to kinds of wood and dimensions, should be made out, so that they can be got out as systematically, quickly, and economically as possible. As different kinds of lumber, different thicknesses, etc., are usually kept in separate piles, state first the kind of wood, next the thickness, and then the width and length.

Pine

No. of Pieces

2 pieces 4 pieces

3 pieces

Thickness

Width

Length

1"

8 2"

X X

12"

8"

X X

4' 2' 6"

)AK If"

X

3"

X

A list of hardware, — nails, hinges, screws, etc., can also be made.

Make measurements and lines exact. Do not be satisfied with coming within an eighth of an inch. Cutting to a line does no good if the line is in the wrong place. Go over measurements a second time to be sure there is no mistake.^ Where there is chance for mistake in putting work together mark the pieces, to show their relative positions, with letters, figures, or other symbols (Fig. i), and it is also well to roughly mark the places for mortises, tenons, etc. In many kinds of work allowance must be made for expansion and contraction. (See page 211.)

Lay out work from one edge or surface only, for you can rarely be sure n

C

Fig. I

' In rough work, where many pieces of the same length are to be got out use the first as a measure for all the rest.

> Working Face

Fig. 2 that the edges or surfaces are exactly parallel. Select the best surface for the "face" and the best edge for the "joint-edge." Make a mark on each to avoid mistakes, and lay out the work from

this side and edge only. A mark

like a V as in Fig. 2 will designate both working-face and joint-edge.

In some work the face side should be the side which shows, as the top of a table or the front side of a pictiire-f rame ; but the face sides of the legs of tables, chairs, etc., should be on the inside to ensure accurate joints with the rails and other parts. ^ (Fig. 687.) In the same way the joint-edges in such work as door-frames, etc., should be on the inside. It is essential that all working-faces and joint-edges should be planed true in all cases where joints are formed.

Operations of the same kind should be done at the same time so far as possible. Lay out duplicate pieces together (Figs. 3 and 4) , mark

Fig. 3 Fig. 4

' If otherwise suitable, the concave side of a warped board is the best for the face side, because it is the best to plane first. (See page 165.)

Introductory 5

similar details, and do similar sawing, planing, boring, etc., at the same time.

3. The Work-shop. — ^A work-shop should be well lighted and properly heated, and dry, lest the tools rust and the work be injured by dampness. The floor should be of wood. Concrete is bad in case of dropping tools, and the dust from it is objectionable.

It is an advantage to have windows on all sides of the shop. In any case the worker when standing at his bench should face the light and have it also on his left so that it may fall properly on his work.

Except for childish work the only advantage of double benches for school use is in saving space and expense. Each pupil should have his own individual bench. (See page 80.)

Separate benches, which may be of a cheaper quality, should be provided for finishing, filing metal, and other work which might hurt the regular benches.

Have everything where it can be reached in the least possible time, the tools used most nearest to the worker. Have tools that go together, as bit-brace and bits, kept near together. Have all the common tools within reach, instead of put away in chests and drawers.

Oily rags should either be burned at once, or, if a few are kept, should be kept in a stone jar or covered tin box. They are dangerous. If there is any dampness in the shop, the steel and iron parts of the tools should be rubbed, after using, with a little fat, — tallow, lard, wax, vaseline, oily cloth, or some anti-rust preparation.

PART I

TOOLS FOR LAYING OUT AND TESTING WORK

The most important are the Rule, Square, Knife, Scratch-awl, Pencil, Bevel, Gauge, Compasses, Straight-edge, Chalk, Chalk-line, Level, and Plumb.

4. The Rule, used to measure and lay out work, is divided into inches, halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths. To mark distances for accurate work, lay the rule on edge so that the divisions on its side touch the wood (Fig. 5). In making several small measurements

Fig. 6

do not move the rule (Fig. 5). To measure as in Fig. 6, use any divisions on the rule rather than its end, for the end is likely to be

' A number of illustrations of tools are given through the courtesy of the Stanley Rule and Level Co., New Britain, Connecticut.

Fig. 5 inaccurate, and is harder to place in line with the edge of the wood. The thumb will help adjust the rule.

A two-foot rule, folding once, is convenient for bench-work. A fourfold rule, folding to six inches in length, is better to carry around, and many prefer to begin with it because of its common use among workmen. The

zigzag folding rule from 2' to 8' long is convenient, fairly accurate, and in common use.

The extension or slide rule is useful for obtaining inside dimensions (see below). The caliper rule is also good for small outside measurements (see Calipers, page 21). A stick six feet long and another ten or twelve, with feet and inches marked, are handy in laying out work.

To find the middle of a given distance, as the width of a board, witi the rule, slide it across the surface until some inch-mark is at an equal distance from each edge of the board (Fig. 7).

To divide a distance, as the width of a board, with the rule, into an equal number of parts, place the rule so that the required number of equal divisions upon it will just reach from one edge of the board to the other, and make a dot exactly at each division (Fig. 8).

To find the distance between two points, where it is not convenient to use a common rule, meas- Fig- 8 ure with an extension or slide rule; or, where you cannot mark the distance on a single stick, two sticks may be used as in Fig. 9.

Fig- 7 i^

■1 k

Fig. 9

next face.

The Square. — The try- square is to test right-angled work, and to mark Hnes at right angles across surfaces. Keep the beam or head (Fig. lo) pressed against the surface to which it is applied, and the blade will then be in position for either marking or testing a right angle (Figs, ii and 12).

A good way to mark with the square is to place the knife on the given point and slide the square along until it hits it (Fig. 11). Then draw the line. To continue such a line upon the adjacent surface, place the knife at the end of the line as in Fig. 13, slide the square up to it, and mark the

Fig. 10

Fig. II

Fig. 12

In testing a surface or edge with the try-square (Figs. 12, 14, 15), place it at several points. Face the light.

The best try-squares are entirely of metal. A medium-sized one (9- or lo-inch blade) is more useful than a small one. A scale is often marked on the blade. Sometimes the end of the head or beam next the blade is cut on a bevel (Fig. 16), for mitring (see page 142), but the bevel is so short that it is accurate only for very small work, (See Bevel,

To square across or around an hexagonal, octagonal , or cylindrical stick, place a rectangular piece between the head of the square and the stick (Fig. 17).

To lay out a bevel with a square, get out a wedge-shaped piece with the required taper and use it as in Figs. 18 and 19. A saw-kerf can be made in the wedge to admit the blade of the square. (See Bevel, page 10.)

The framing-square, "steel square," or two-foot carpenter's Fig. 13 square, is used like the try-square

and is of great value in getting out stock, in laying out work, and in testing work too large for the try-square. It can also be used as a rule (see page 6), as a straight-edge (see page 16), and to set the bevel at different angles (see page 10.) Many computations can be made by means of the figures on the blades.

For squaring large work, see page 223.

6. The Knife, which should be used for fine, accurate marking may be a common pocket-knife, a sloyd knife, or a special marking knife. The scratch-awl can also be Fig. 14

used.

The marking-awl, or scratch-awl, has a round, sharp point, and can be used like the knife for marking.

Fig. 15

7. The Pencil. — For moderately nice work a round pencil (medium-hard or somewhat soft) will do. A pencil is best to mark curves which cannot be drawn with compasses.

Sharpen pencil points on fine sandpaper or a file kept for the purpose. For framing and the rougher kinds of carpentry, for getting out stock, etc . , a carpenter's pencil sharpened flatways may be used. 8. The Bevel is similar to the try-square, but the blade can be set at any angle. The mitre-square is fixed at an angle of 45°, and is better for accurate mitre- work than the adjustable beve' (seepage 142). The head of the bevel like that of the square must be held firmly against the wood (Fig. 20).

To get angles of 45° and 135° with the bevel, place it against the in-

Fig. 16 side edge of the steel-square (Fig. 21), and set the blade at the same distance on each Fig. 17 arm of the square." See also page 226.

' A right angle can be drawn from the straight-edge of a board, points marked at equal distances from the point A (Fig. 22), and the bevel set by these points.