A shorter course in English grammar

Front matter

In son, Blakc77ian, Taylor & Co.'s Publications.

THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL SERIES

OF

Index

A and An, pages 121 and 133.

Abbreviation, p. 72.

Accent, of words, 67 ; of verse, 225.

Adjectives, 35; classes of, 122; derivation of, 124; irregular, 126; relations of, 127; punctuation of, 128 ; phrases used as adjectives, 129; clauses used as adjectives, 130; analysis of, 131 ; parsing, 131 ; false syntax, 135.

Adjuncts and Adnouns, 105.

Adverbs, 41 ; meaning and classes, 180; conjunctive, 181 ; comparison, 181; syntax, 182; punctuation, 182 ; derivation, 190; phrases used adverbially, 192; clauses used adverbially, 193; analysis and parsing, 194 ; false syntax, 200.

Agreement, 95.

Analysis, 44, 104; of nouns and pronouns, 105 ; of adjectives, 131 ; of verbs, 165 ; of adverbs, 182; of phrases and clauses, 102, 129, 130, 183, 192, 193, 197.

Antecedent, 79, 234.

Antithesis, 219.

Arrangement of Words, 15, 217- 219.

Auxiliary Verbs, 139, 153, 174.

Blackboard Exercises, 27.

Brackets, 98.

Capital Letters, rules for, 60-63.

Cases, 34, 85.

Clauses, 13, 37 ; used as nouns, lu2 ; modal nature of, 104 ; used as adjectives, 130 ; used as adverbs, 193.

Climax, 219.

Comparison, degrees of, 36, 123.

Compound Words, 69.

Conjugation, 154; how formed, 155.

Conjunctions, 51 ; meaning and classes, 186; svntax, 187; list, 187.

Contraction, 72.

Correlatives, 188.

Declension, 86.

Derivation, 75 ; of nouns, 87 ; of

adjectives, 124; of verbs, 159;

of adverbs, 190.

Elements, 104.

Ellipsis, 216.

Enallasre, 218.

Equivalent Expressions, 222-

225.

Etymology, 57, 73.

Euphemism, 76.

Exclamation, 220.

Exclamation-Point, 97, 228.

Genders, 32, 82.

Government, 95.

Grammar, 57.

INDEX.

Hyperbole, 76.

Hyphen, 69-70.

Idioms, 230-237.

Independent Element, 78.

Infinitives, 200; meaning, 164;

syntax, 164, 165; punctuation,

Interjections, 19, 189.

Interrogation, 219.

Interrogation-Point, 97, 228.

Inversion, 217.

Irony, 76.

Irregular Verbs, 139, 141.

Italics, 65.

Language, 57.

Metaphor, 75.

Metonymy, 76.

Modifiers, denned, 104, 105; adjective, 105; adverbial, 121, 165, 182.

Nouns, 17, 31, 79; classes, 79 ; properties, 82 ; irregular in number, 84 ; derivation, 87 ; exercises, 87-94 ; syntax, 95 ; punctuation, 98-151; analysis, 105; parsing, 106; false syntax, 110- 121.

Numbers, 33 ; of nouns and pronouns, 84, 93, 94 ; of adjectives, 122, 128 ; of verbs, 151 ; Observations, 111, 133, 173, 200.

Oral Elements, 58.

Orthography, 57-74.

Paragraph, 98.

Parsing, defined, 104 ; of nouns and pronouns, 106 ; of articles and adjectives, 131 ; of verbs, 214 ; of adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, 194; general remarks, 230; difficult constructions, 230-285.

Participles, defined and classified, 151-153; meaning and syntax, 164-166; punctuation, 166; parsing, 166-168.

Parts of Speech, 16, 79.

Pauses, 97 ; poetic, 226.

Persons, 33 ; of nouns and pronouns, 83; of verbs, 151, 163.

Personification, 76.

Phrases, 13, 36 ; used as nouns, 102; used as adjectives, 129; used as adverbs, 192; idiomatic, 230.

Pleonasm, 216.

Poetic Peet, 225.

Poetic Licenses, 226.

Predicates, 9, 46, 105.

Prefixes, 73.

Prepositions, 19, 129, 183 ; list of, 184 ; punctuation of prepositional phrases, 184.

Pronouns, 17, 31 ; defined and classified, 79; parsing, 106-108; syntax of, 143, 144, 167-169.

Pronunciation, 57-72.

Properties of Nouns and Pronouns, 82.

Properties of Verbs, 145.

Punctuation, 97, 228.

Quotation-Marks, 65, 98, 228.

Rhyme, 226.

Roots of Words, 73.

Rules of Syntax, 95, 127, 165, 182 ; summary of, 238.

Scanning, 228.

Sentence, defined, 9, 13 ; sentences, classified according to meaning and form, 12, 104 ; sentence-making, 43; simple and composite, 152; simple, complex, and compound, 222, 223; how contracted, 224.

Simile, 219.

Spelling, 70 ; rules of, 71.

Styles, and forms of the tenses, 40, 150.

Suffixes, 73.

Synecdoche, 76.

Synopsis, 77, 78; of verb, 154.

INDEX.

Syntax, defined, 79 ; of nouns and pronouns, 95 ; of articles and adjectives, 127; of verbs, 166: of adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, 182- 189; modifications of, 216; difficult constructions, 230-237 ; summary of rules of, 238.

Tenses, 40, 147; exceptions and secondary uses, 148 ; some of the most common errors, 177.

Verbs, 18, 38, \38 ; principal parts

of, 138; classes of, 139; list of

irregular, 141; defective, 145;

properties of verbs, 145 ; voices, styles and forms, 1 50 ; person and number, 151 ; participles and infinitives, 151 ; conjugation and synopsis, 154; conjugation of the verb be, 158; derivation of .verbs, 159; exercises on verbs, 159-162; general syntax of verbs, 162-166 ; parsing, 166- 168; false syntax, 170-179.

Verse, 225.

Versification, 225.

Vision, 220.

Words, 13; elements and form of, 57-66; classification of, 66, 67; form and spelling of, 69-72 ; meanings of, 73-76.

SYNOPSIS.

ORAL COURSE.

Analysis, synthesis, and criticisms, with the simplest and most practical introduction to composition. First, the two chief parts of discourse or sentences, — subject and predicate ; then the sentence, and the larger parts of sentences. Next, the analysis of sentences according to their words ; or, the parts of speech. Synthesis of subject ; synthesis of predicate ; synthesis of sentences. Correction of the most common errors. Short Letters.

TEXT COURSE.

Words.

The General Grammar of Words. — The oral elements

and their signs. Words in regard to form: letters, syllables,

spelling. Words in regard to meaning : prefixes, suffixes, roots.

Laws of transition in the meanings of words.

For prefixes, suffixes, roots, and synonyms, see KerPs " Shorter Course, with Etymology."

Sentences.

Syntax, and its Elements. — The grammar of nouns and pronouns, with illustrations and exercises. The grammar of articles and adjectives, with illustrations and exercises. The grammar of verbs, with illustrations and exercises. The grammar of adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, with illustrations and exercises. General exercises on sentences, and all the parts of speech ; or, a poem to be analyzed and parsed. General exercises in false syntax. The various modifications of syntax, chiefly for rhetorical effect. Idioms.

Remarks. — | denotes separation. = connects equivalent expressions.

W means wrong: sentences beginning with this letter are to be corrected.

The few technical or difficult words which we have been obliged to use, the teacher should explain ; or she should give out a number of them to the pupils from time to time, and require them to iearn the meanings in some large dictionary.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

OEAL COUESE.

SECTION I. We have thoughts

We express our thoughts by means of words.

Every saying or statement implies at least two things, — something of which we speak, and something that we say of it.

Subject. The word or expression denoting that of which something is said is called the subject.

Predicate. The word or expression denoting what is said of the subject is called the predicate.

The word subject is also frequently applied to the person or thing spoken of.

Sentence. A sentence is a combination of words making complete sense. A sentence is a 'thought expressed in words.

Words must be combined, and in certain ways, to express thoughts. The words the, glides, waves, in, over, wind, meadow, the, separately and singly, can not express a thought ; and when combined thus, waves the in glides wind meadow the over, they do not express a thought ; but when combined thus, " The wind glides in waves over the meadow," they express a beautiful thought. The wind is the subject, because it denotes that of which something is said ; glides in waves over the meadow is the predicate, because it denotes what is said of the wind ; and the entire expression is a sentence, because it is a combination of words making complete sense, or because it is a thought expressed in words.

" The argument most apt and ample

For common use is the example. " — T. Moore.

Say that the expression is a sentence, and tell why ; mention the subject, and why ; mention the predicate, and why : —

John | studies. Fire | burns. Snow is falling. Mary is writing. Birds sing. Children play. Winds How. Bivers flow. He sleeps. Blood is red. Thieves are sly. The sun shines. The dog barks. Life passes away rapidly. Corn is ground. The ocean is deep. Gold is a metal. Gold is yellow. Gold shines. Gold is coined. Ice is frozen water. Snow protects plants. Wolves howl. All dogs bite the bitten dog. Our skiff floats. The dew has refreshed the flowers. John caught a fish. The fish was caught by John. The horse was young. The horse ran away. The horse was caught with a lasso.

tt^" The subject answers to the question Who ? or What ? and the predicate to Is what ? Does what ? or Has what done to it f Let the teacher a^ain conduct her class through the foregoing sentences, according to these distinctions, and with such variations in the questions as good sense and syntax require. — See last page of Preface.

Supply suitable subjects to the following predicates, so as to make complete sentences : —

Have recited our lesson; has recited his lesson; have recited their lesson ; squeal ; plays ; play ; is made from apples ; warms us ; is plowing his field ; are sold in the market; grow in the woods; climbs trees; live in water.

Supply suitable predicates : —

The frost; ice; our neighbor; the hunter; my father and mother ; bread, meat, and vegetables ; corn ; the Mississippi ; New York ; a flock of blackbirds ; pinks, lilies, and roses.

Make sentences from the following words : —

Boy, cow, sun, horse, lion, ship, tree, cat, knife, glass, fe bird,* wolf, 'eye, * ear, \ hand, . rose, ' dog, • frog, snake. « ,

Example. — The boy plays. (Begin every sentence with a capital letter, and end it with a full stop.)

r Low, play, break, cut, need, grow, sail, howl, neigh, fly, shine, creep, smell, hold, hear, see, jump,- roar, bark.

SECTION II. The subject may be either simple or compound

The predicate may be either simple or compound.

An assertion can be made of one person, thing, or group, or of two or more distinct persons, or kinds of things ; and to the same subject can be referred either one assertion or two or more distinct assertions. In the sentence, " The boy | is going to school," the subject and the predicate are simple; in the sentence, "The boy and his. sister | are going to school," the subject is compound ; and in the sentence, " The boy | studies and plays," the predicate is compound.

For simple subjects and predicates, see the exercises in the last Section.

Mention the subjects and the predicates, and tell whether simple or compound : —

John and James study. John reads and writes. Winds and storms are but currents of air. He lighted his lamp, sat down by the table, but soon slept with all his might. Beauty is a blossom. t Time and distance tame the strongest grief. Books, music, and gardening are his delight. After clouds comes fair weather. Apples, peaches, plums, and melons grow in most parts of our country. I must either sell or borrow. The lark soars and sings.

0^=* Now let the pupils make from each of the foregoing sentences as many single statements as possible.

Contract the following sentences, by omitting repeated or unnecessary words : —

The dog barks, and the dog bites. (The dog barks and bites.) The child laughs, and the child talks. The horsechestnut is beautiful, but it is not useful. The elephant lias a short neck, and the elephant has a long trunk. Yesterday I saw your cousin, but I did not see your brother. You should love your brothers, and you should love your sisters. If you wish to succeed, work with cheerfulness, and work with perseverance. He writes quickly, and therefore he writes carelessly. Caesar was a great general, and Hannibal was a great general. Monkeys abound in the

12 OBAL COURSE.

forests of Africa, parrots abound in the forests of Africa, and serpents abound in the forests of Africa. In warm climates, oranges blossom all the year, and oranges ripen all the year.

SECTION III. We know, doubt, or wish

Hence we can declare, ash, or request.

And sentences are accordingly either declarative, interrogative, or imperative.

Declarative. Interrogative. Imperative.

The soldier rests. Does the soldier rest ? Soldier, rest.

John goes to school. Does John go to school ? John, go to school.

She went home. Did she go home ? Go home.

A declarative sentence is an assertion.

An interrogative sentence is a question.

An imperative sentence is a command or request.

When we speak or write to a person, we usually do so either to tell him something, to ask him something, or to bid him do something.

Tell whether declarative, interrogative, or imperative, and why : — He is honest. Is he honest? Be honest. The summits of the Rocky Mountains are covered with snow. Take away these hooks. Why are we here idle ? Go to the ant, thou sluggard ! The wind is never weary. Is it raining ? Work, hoys, work. Wolves were once common in every part of this country. Were you in time for the train ? The lone sheep is in danger of wolves. Wake not a sleeping lion. Wars "bring scars. Weeds do not need sowing or culture. Do not count chickens before they are hatched. Is dinner ready ? A bird in the hand is worth two in the hush. Are you hurt ? Time devours all things. What comes from the heart, goes to the heart. Do not say,

Go ; hut go thyself.

CCF=" Now let the pupils, so far as convenient, change each of the foregoing sentences into the other kinds; and they may also be required to change affirmative sentences into negative, and negative into affirmative.

Section IV

A tetter is a character that denotes one or more of the elementary sounds of language.

A Syllable is a letter, or a union of letters, pronounced as one unbroken sound.

A Word is a syllable, or a union of syllables, used as the sign of an idea.

Letters make syllables, syllables make words, words make sentences, and sentences express thoughts. Letters denote sounds ; words, ideas ; and sentences, thoughts. — The teacher should explain what needs explanation.

A Proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. The simpler word statement may also be used.

A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not making a proposition.

A Sentence is a thought expressed by a proposition, or a union of propositions, followed by a full pause.

For a more simple but less exact definition of a sentence, see page 9.

A Clause is a proposition that makes but a part of a sentence.

The expression, " I will come," is a proposition, or statement, of which lis the subject, and will come is the predicate. It is also a sentence, when it expresses the complete thought of the speaker. " I will come when he sends for me," is a sentence consisting of two propositions, / will come and when he sends for me. Sends for me is a phrase ; the words are properly put together, but do not make a proposition.

Tell whether a phrase or a sentence, and why ; change phrases into sentences ; resolve composite sentences into their clauses ; resolve sentences or clauses into subjects and predicates, and define these parts : —

A clear and beautiful stream ran along the Muffs. Under a shady maple. Her eyes were blue like blossoming flax. The diamond is the most precious gem. Blown down by the wind. Palm-trees grow in Asia, Africa, and South America. Some boys and girls are very careless. To study diligently. The thunder burst in tremendous explosions. The peals were echoed from mountain to mountain. The storm seemed to have brought all the artillery of heaven into action. Williams the barber. When I had recited Sny lessons. Literature is a garden, books are particular views of it, and readers are visitors. How soon are we forgotten when we are gone ! Set a frog on a golden chair, and he will leap back into his dirty pool. Springs flow from natural reservoirs under ground. Lakes are supplied with water by rivers, brooks, or springs. He that has ill luck, gets ill usage. Eagles do not catch flies. Men, like pillars, are strong only while they are upright. The purest water comes from hardest rock.

Make sentences, and embody in them the following phrases : — Under the snow. Decked with flowers. To study more diligently.

By the brook. Planted in rows. To see the sun rise.

In the deepest pool. Glowing with heat. To spend the day. Over field and forest. Having nothing to do. To play with his dog.

Change each set of the following statements into one sentence : —

1. The tree was struck. It was an oak-tree. The tree was old. It was a fine tree. It grew in the Park. The lightning struck it. It was night when it was struck. The night was Thursday night. It was twelve o'clock when it was struck.

How much more briefly and elegantly is all this information expressed in one sentence ! The fine old oak-tree in the Park was struck by lightning at 12 o'clock on Thursday night.

2. Banks were overflowed. They were the banks of the Mississippi. This was on the 15th of last June.

3. A boy came. He was pretty. He was little. He was blue-eyed. He had rosy cheeks. He came with a young white rabbit. He had it in his pinafore. He brought it to his mother.

4. The girl wrote a letter. She was a good girl. She wrote it to her mother. It was a long letter. She wrote it on her mother's birthday. She wrote in the morning.

5. Elizabeth harangued her troops. Elizabeth was a queen. She harangued them with much spirit. It was at Tilbury Fort. It was before the Spanish Armada arrived. It was only a little time before.

Change each of the following sentences into as many statements as possible:— *

1. After a great defeat in one of the wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, Queen Margaret, the wife of Henry the Sixth, fled with her son into a deep forest.

Ex. — Queen Margaret fled. She was the wife of Henry the Sixth. She fled after a great defeat. It was a defeat in one of the wars between the houses of York and Lancaster. She fled with her son. She fled into a forest.

2. The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them ; and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose.

3. Amid the shades of a venerable wood, which clothed the sides of a lofty mountain, there lived an aged hermit, remarkable for his wisdom and benevolence.

4. Music, when the performers are concealed, affects us with a pleasure mingled with surprise, and reminds us of the natural concerts of birds among the leafy bowers.

Vary the following sentences by changing the arrangement of the parts : —

1. On the fifth day of the month, | which I always keep holy, | I ascended the high hills of Bagdad, | in order to pass the rest of the day in meditation and prayer.

Ex. — In order to pass the rest of the day in meditation and prayer, I ascended the high hills of Bagdad, on the fifth day of the month, which I always keep holy. (Change in several other ways, if possible.)

2. He hastened to the palace, overwhelmed with anguish, and cast himself at the feet of the Emperor.

3. The dry leaves rustled on the ground ; and the winds, whistling by me, gave a foretaste of the gloomy desolation of winter.

4. If you lie upon roses when young, you may have to lie upon thorns when old.

5. Fortune knocks once, at least, at every man's gate.

6. Early one summer morning, before the family was stirring, an old clock, that, without giving its owner any cause of complaint, had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen, suddenly stopped.

7. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade,

Where heaves the turf in many a moldering heap, Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,

If the pupils have been well drilled according to the general tenor of all the foregoing exercises, they have probably acquired a tolerable knowledge of the larger parts of language, with their joints and mobility, and are now prepared for a more minute analysis.

Section V

Though language consists of a large number of words, yet they can all be reduced to a small number of classes, which are called the Parts of Speech.

1. Words that are the Names of objects, and are usually called NOUNS* Ex. — " In spring, the sun shines pleasantly upon the earth, leaves

and flowers come forth, and birds sing among the trees."

2. Words that stand for Nouns, and are called PHONO VNS.

" Roses encircle my window, and they adorn it."

the roses the window.

3. Words that particularly help Nouns, and are called ARTICLES. " The church stands on a hill." " Give him an apple."

4. Words that describe or specify objects, and are called ADJECTIVES. " Ripe strawberries are good" " That man owns two farms."

5. Words that signify to do, to be, or to suffer, and express assertions, — called VERBS.

" Men work." " Plants live." " Bad boys are punished."

6. Words that express manner, time, place, or degree, usually in connection with Verbs, and therefore called ADVERBS.

" Speak distinctly." " Remain here." " Go now." " Run faster."

7. Words placed before Nouns to make with them descriptive phrases, and called PREPOSITIONS. r^j ? ,

"There are cedars on the hill beyond the river." (Where? What

8. Words that connect other words, and are called CONJUNCTIONS. " John and James are happy, because they are good."

9. Words abruptly uttered to express feeling, and called INTERJEC- TIONS ; as, " But, oh ! how changed ! " Hence, —

There are nine Parts of Speech ; Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.

A Noun is a name.

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun.

An Article is the word the, a, or an, placed before a noun to limit its meaning.

An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun.

A Verb is a word used to express the act or state of a subject.

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

An Interjection is an independent word, used abruptly to express emotion.

Familiar Explanation. — I might present to your mind, by words alone, all that I have ever seen or experienced. To do this, I should have to use nouns and pronouns, to denote objects ; adjectives, to describe or specify objects, or to express their qualities, conditions, or circumstances ; verbs, to express their actions, or states of existence ; adverbs, to describe or locate their actions, or to show the nature and degree of their qualities ; prepositions, to express their positions or relations to one another ; conjunctions, to continue the discourse, or connect its parts ; and interjections, to give vent to any feeling or emotion springing up suddenly within me.

Nouns* — When we look around us, we can hardly avoid noticing objects, and sometimes we see a great number and variety. Such words as John, Mary, tree, house, street, man, horse, rock, apple, flower, rose, chair , desk, book, slate, stove, wall, sky, sun, moon, stars, day, night, music, fragrance, roughness, pride, sorrow, trouble, are all of them nouns, because they are the names of objects, or of persons and things. Noun means name; and an object is whatever we can see, hear, taste, feel, smell, or else think of as being something. If I say, " Lions, giraffes, ostriches, baboons, and elephants are found in Africa," lions, giraffes, ostriches, elephants, baboons, and Africa are nouns. If I say, " Pinks, violets, lilies, and honeysuckles are blooming in our garden," pinks, violets, lilies, honeysuckles, and garden are nouns. And if I say, " The desire of happiness is inherent in the soul," desire, happiness, and soul are also nouns.

Pronouns. — Pro-noun means for a noun ; and pronouns are so called because they are used for nouns, or in stead of nouns. Such words as he, she, they, them, it, you, I, we, who, which, me, us, what, yours, himself, themselves, are pronouns, because in speaking we often use them in place' of the names of the persons or things that we think or speak of. If I say, " I see you," /represents the speaker, but it is not his name; and you represents the person spoken to, without being his name. If I say, " William promised Mary that William would lend Mary William's grammar, that Mary might study the grammar" you can easily see that 2 the sentence is clumsy and disagreeable, because I have so often repeated the words William, Mary, and grammar. But if I say, " William promised Mary that he would lend her his grammar that she might study it," you notice that the sentence is much more simple and agreeable, because I have used the little words he, she, and it, for the nouns William, Mary, and grammar, in stead of repeating these nouns. It is therefore evident that it was desirable, in the formation of language, to make a small group of short words that could be used in stead of nouns, to prevent the frequent and disagreeable repetition of nouns ; and this group of small words are the pronouns. Nouns and pronouns are sometimes called substantives.

Articles. — Article means joint. The name is derived from the Greeks, who used such expressions as " the man the," just as we sometimes hear " that man that" A noun thus situated is not unlike the part of a limb between two joints. If I say, " Give me a book," you understand that any book will answer my purpose ; but if I say, " Give me the book," you understand that I want some particular book. If I say, " Missouri is north of Arkansas," I mean States ; but if I say, " The Missouri is north of the Arkansas," I mean rivers. These little words, a and the, which are called articles, are more intimately connected with nouns than any other specifying words are ; indeed, so much so, that they may be considered a sort of pilots for nouns.

Adjectives. — Ad' -jective means throwing to, adding to, or joining to. Adjectives are so called because they are words that generally serve to modify our idea of an object by joining to the idea that of some quality, or by making a distinction. Such words as white, black, sweet, sour, good, bad, large, small, swift, slow, hard, soft, muddy, dusty, young, old, deep, high, wild, and gentle are adjectives, because they are not the names of objects, but serve to describe objects. And such words as this, that, those, yonder, some, many, few, two, second, third, each, and every are called adjectives, because they serve to show what objects or how many are meant. If I say, " A good pupil will be industrious," good and industrious are adjectives, because they describe the pupil. And in the sentence, " This tree bore Jive bushels of apples," this is an adjective, because it makes the indefinite word tree mean a particular one ; and Jive is an adjective, because it makes the word bushels mean a particular number.

Verbs. — Verb means word. Verbs are called so by pre-eminence ; because they are the chief words in language or in grammars, or because all objects except God must have been produced by some kind of activity. Such words as walk, run, leap, swim, study, work, create, fly, read, talk, sing, cook, eat, Jail, flow, blow, and break are called verbs, because they tell what persons or things do, or they are used to express assertions ; as, "The child walks;" "The horses run;" "Frogs leap;" "Ducks swim; " " Alice reads ; " " Birds fly ; " " Most people work daily. " If I say, " The tree is green/' is is used to assert a state of the tree ; if I say, " The tree waves," waves tells what the tree does ; and if I say, u The tree was killed," was Jellied tells what is done to the tree. Such words are verbs.

Adverbs. — Ad-verb means to a verb. Adverbs are so called because they are most frequently added or joined to verbs. They are generally used to express manner, place, tune, or degree, with reference to some act or state. " The water flows rapidly ; " rapidly is an adverb, because it tells how the water flows. " It rained here then ; " here is an adverb because it tells where it rained, and then is an adverb because it tells when it rained. " The water is very deep ; " very is an adverb, because it tells how deep the water is. " The water flows very rapidly ; " very is an adverb, because it tells how rapidly the water flows. If I say, " He reasons correctly, speaks fluently, and persuades earnestly ; " " "Walk up, walk down, walk in ; " " Exceedingly tall, horribly ugly, surprisingly abrupt, more ingenious, most eloquent, very powerfully, quite fast ;" you see that all of these Italicized words tell how, where, when, or in what degree ; and they are therefore adverbs.