Exposition of the grammatical structure of the English language

Front matter

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L^lali'b.

iS:iili^ffi88«»«i« wMii^M,

Preface

In the following treatise, we have adopted a plan of arrangement entirely different from that of preceding grammarians; and we trust that, to all judicious teachers, this innovation will appear an improvement. We commence.. by calling the attention of the student to the purposes served by language, the facts which render grammatical contrivances necessary in language, to the formation of propositions to convey our thoughts ; — all subjects useful and important, independent of the design with which we introduce them. Our statements in reference to these points can be readily comprehended by every student, of average capacity and average application. Having thus established a mutual understanding with the student, as regards the nature of our subject and the purposes which w^e have in view, we endeavor to maintain this common understanding, and a rational acquiescence in the correctness of our deductions unimpaired through the whole treatise, by carefully guarding against taking any step in advance which he cannot readily follow. We thus hope to secure through the whole course, a clear perception of the practical utility of what is already explained, and adequate preparation (if not awakened desire) for the further prosecution of the inquiry. By pursuing this method, the student will feel conscious at every step that he has made sensible progress in the acquisition of a knowledge

PREFACE.

of the structure of language, and that even if he were to suspend his studies at this step, his labor in attempting to learn grammar would not be entirely lost. We need not advert to the manifest defects of the old methods of grammatical instruction in these respects.

We shall not dwell in this place on the other peculiarities which distinguish the following treatise. These peculiarities cannot be advantageously described or defended in a preface. They can be best seen and best appreciated in the regular perusal of the work. We may possibly, hereafter, find an opportunity of examining the defects of the old systems of grammatical instruction, and of explaining and defending our own views, more fully than we have been able to do in the notes interspersed through this volume. Manifest proofs are exhibited, in the complaints of teachers and grammarians, that the friends of education are sensible of the defects of our old systems, and ardently desire a reformation. And, in this connection, we feel pleasure in acknowledging that much has been done by the efforts of our immediate predecessors to introduce, and to prepare the way for the reception of an improved method of grammatical instruction.

The importance of a thorough reformation of the method of teaching grammar to the general intellectual progress of the age, can scarcely be over-estimated. We may form some notion of this importance, if we reflect that this science not only lays (or, at least, should lay) the foundation of all sound logic and all true eloquence — has the closest connection with correct thinking, as well as with the correct transmission of the products of thought from mind to mind — 'but serves as a natural and indispensable introduction to our courses of intellectual training, and the first step in a philosophical education. (How much may the future success of the young student depend, on the manner in which this first step is taken ?) Besides this, a thorough knowledge of grammar is the great preparation for the easy and correct acquisition of

PREFACE.

ancient and modern languages, enabling us with greatly diminished labor to comprehend clearly the laws of their structure, and fix these laws indelibly in our memory for ready recollection.

After what we have already said, we need not assure the intelligent reader, who may do us the favor of perusing our treatise regularly from the commencement, that he can find no difficulty in following our steps. But, looking to the nature of the subject, and to the method of treating it which we have adopted, and to some necessary innovation (we have studiously avoided all unnecessary innovation) in the use of terms, &c., we deprecate all attempts to take up our treatise in the middle, or to pronounce judgment on a part without a complete knowledge of our whole system.

We have expended much labor in adapting this book to the purpose of giving instruction to classes. With this end in view, we have prepared a course of questions, placed for the greater convenience of the teacher and student at the foot of the page ; and we have secured a ready reference, by numbers, to the part of the text in which the answers are found. For the same purpose a series of exercises is prescribed, consisting chiefly of written examples (to be furnished by the student) of the forms of construction treated in each section. We think this kind of exercise better suited than any other to secure the rapid progress of pupils in acquiring a knowledge of the principles of grammar, and at the same time (what is one of the most valuable literary accomplishments) experience in the correct construction of sentences. We trust that the pains taken to accommodate the book to the practical purposes of instruction will be appreciated by intelligent teachers.

It will be observed that the arrangement is such that, by omitting the parts included in brackets, and generally indicated by smaller type, a first course in the most essential (and, at the same time, most easily comprehended) principles

VI PREFACE.

of grammar can be given in a rapid manner. We recommend a first course of this kind, exhibiting a general outline of the Structure of the English Language, in all cases where the student is not already familiar with the subject of grammar. When in such a course the student comes to the chapter on Compound Propositions, he may return to the beginning, and in a second course be required to answer all the questions. Satisfactory answers to these will generally include all that the young student is expected to learn. The notes are designed chiefly for the satisfaction of teachers and inquisitive adepts in the science of grammar.

If the method of teaching grammar here proposed should be received with a share of public approbation, we shall soon furnish an abridgment suited for the use of those who are only commencing their grammatical studies. The book now presented might, we think, be profitably employed, in the manner above recommended, with the youngest classes in grammar. But the details necessary to explain and justify our method, and Our views, when they difi'er from those commonly received, have swelled the book to a degree which may seem to render it unfit, both as to size and price, for the use of beginners. These details will be interesting and serviceable to more advanced students, who may wish to perfect their knowledge of grammar, — 'the class for whose special use we design the present treatise. We hope that the work in its present shape will also prove acceptable to teachers of youth, and to such gentlemen as take interest in the progress of education, and in this class of literary subjects.

Contents

INTEODUCTION.

SECT. 1.

2. 8,4. 5. 6. 7.

Chapter I. Of Peopositions

10. Purposes for which language is employed,

11. Definition and Classification of Propositions, . Analysis of Propositions the chief business of the grammarian, Assertive Proposition, ......

12. The parts of an Assertive Proposition,

13. Manner in which the parts of Propositions — Subject, Predicate, and

Copula, are expressed or indicated in language, . Occasional suppression of Subject and Predicate,

14. Analysis of Propositions consisting of two words,

15. The Assertive word claims the attention first in analysis, Exercises in Analysis, ......

ib. 10 ib. ib.

11 12 18 14

ib.

VUl

CONTENTS.

16. Division of words into classes, according to their functions, .

17. Words wliicli express the subjects of Propositions are called Nouns.

Origin and meaning of this name, . . .

18. Words which indicate assertion are called verbs. Origin and mean-

ing of this name, .......

Directions as to the manner of exercising the pnpil in analysis,

19. Importance of the functions performed by Nouns and Verbs,

PAGB.

Chapter II. Of Nouns

32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Definition of Nouns,

Illustration of the definition, &c.,

Concrete Nouns,

Collective Nouns,

Abstract Nouns,

Verbal Nouns, .

Pronouns,

Personal Pronouns,

Use of the different Persons,

Genders of Pronouns, .

Proper and Common Nouns,

Use of Common Nouns,

Singular and Plural forms of Nouns, .

Modifications of words in general.

Modification of the form of words,

Digression on the Elementary sounds of Language and on

Diphthongs, .....

Consonants. Classification of Consonants, .

Sharp and Plat, or Hard and Smooth Consonants, Appendix on Sounds and Letters, Formation of Plurals, ....

Additional Eemarks on the Formation of Plurals,

Letters

CHAPTER m.

OF VEEBS.

44. Preliminary Kemark. Classification of Verbs in reference to meaning,

CONTENTS.

IX

BBOT.

60. 61. 62.

65. 66. 67.

Neuter and Active, or Intransitive and Transitive Verbs,

Kemarks on the verb to be, .

The Passive Voice,

Tenses of Verbs,

Simple Tenses. Indefinite Tense,

Formation of the Past Tense, .

Personal Terminations,

Formation of Participles,

Modes, ....

Modes of English verbs.

Conjugation. Paradigms,

Compound Tenses,

Future Tense, .

Compound Tenses formed with the verb Sam,

Observations on the Perfect Tense, .

Compound Forms made with the verb Z'o,

Compound Forms made with May^ Gan^ MlgM^ Coiild, &c..

Compound Forms made with the verb To Be^

Passive and Progressive Forms, ....

Eemarks on the Auxiliaries Wiil^ Shall^ Would, SJiould, &c., Past Tense employed hypothetically, ....

Eemarks on the Synoptical Table of Tense Forms, . Synoptical Table, ......

Defective Verbs, ......

Impersonal Verbs, ......

List of Verbs of the Ancient Conjugation and of Contracted Verbs

of the Modern Conjugation, Notes and Eemarks on the List,

PAGE.

160 164.

CHAPTER ly.

MODiriOATION OF THE SUBJECT AND PEEDIOATE BY NOUNS.

68. Eemarks on Modification by complementary words,

69. Noun in Apposition Modification,

70. Noun Adjectively employed, .

71. Infinitive used to modify a noun,

72. Noun Complementary of Neuter Verbs

73. Cases of Nouns,

74. Declension of -Nouns and Pronoun?

75. Genitive Case Modification,

77. Infinitives used to modify verbs,

78. Infinitive Complementary of Active Verbs,

180'

CONTENTS.

SECT. PAGE.

78. Construction with ask and teach, ..... 212

79. Dative Modification, or Personal Object of the Verb, . . 216

80. Order of Sequence of Modifications, ..... 228

CHAPTER Y.

OF PEEPOSITIONS.

81. Prepositions in general, ...... 233

Prepositions in composition. Prepositions used Adverbially, . 235 Noun and Preposition Modification, ..... 236

82. Additional Eemarks on the Prepositions, . . . . 242 88. Modification of the whole Assertion, . . ... 245 84. Accusative of Time, Value, Measure, Weight, &c. . . .247

CHAPTER YI.

OF ADJECTIYES.

85. Adjectives. General Eemarks, ..... 254 Descriptive Adjectives, ...... 255

86. Uses of Descriptive Adjectives. Descriptive Adjective Modifica-

87. Adjectives employed substantively, . . . . . 263

88. Adjective Complementary of Verbs, ..... 266 Adjective Complementary of Neuter Verbs, . . . . 268

89. Adjective Complementary of Active Verbs, , . . . 271

90. Eemarks on the Noun and the Adjective Complementary, . . 275

91. Determinative Adjectives, . , . . . . 279

CHAPTER YH.

OF ADYEEBS.

92. General Eemarks on Adverbs, ..... 282

Punctions of Adverbs, . . . . ' . . .283

Circumstantial A iverbs, . . . . . .287

Arrangement of Adverbs, ...... 289

Classification of Circumstantial Adverbs, .... 290

93. Derivation and Formation of Adverbs, .... 292

CONTENTS. XI

93. Adjectives used Adverbially. Adverbial Phrases, . The Negative Mt, . . . . »

The words Fes and No^ . « . .

Two Negatives, ......

94. Modification of Adjectives. Comparison,

Irregular Comparison, ...,.,

95. Comparison of Adverbs, ....

96. Modification of Adjectives and Adverbs by distinct words, Dative Modification of Adjectives Accusative Modification of Adjectives, Infinitive Modification of Adjectives, .

PAGK

, 295 , 296

311 , 813

Noun and Preposition Modification of Adjectives and Adverbs, . 314

CHAPTER Yin.

OP INTEEEOGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE PEOPOSITIONS.

97. Interrogative Propositions, ...... 316

98. Eemarks on Interrogative Words, ..... 320

99. Imperative Propositions, ...... 322

100. Synoptical Table of the various forms of Modification of Nouns,

Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs, ..... 325 Summary description of the purposes served by the several kinds

of Modification, . . . . . . .328

Eules of Concord, &c., . . . . . .330

Order to be followed in the Analysis of Propositions, . . ib-

CHAPTER IX.

OF COMPOUND PEOPOSITIONS.

101. Definition of Compound propositions, and general remarks, . 333

102. Accessory Proposition. Classification of Accessory Propositions, . 335 Conjunctions and Conjunctive Words, .... 336

103. Substantive Accessory Propositions, ..... 337 Substantive Accessory as Subject of the Compound Proposition, . ib. It employed as Substitute Subject before the verb, which is followed by the Accessory expressing the real subject, . . 339

104. Accessories used for the purpose of Modification, . . . 841

105. Substantive Accessory employed in Apposition, . . . 342

XU CONTENTS.

SECT. PAGE.

106. Accessory Complementary of the verb lb j?^, . . , 343

107. Accessory used as Objective Modification, .... 345

108. Substantive Accessory expressive of Purpose, . , . 347

109. Substantive Accessory Modifying Adjectives, . , . 348

110. Adjective Accessory Propositions, ..... 350 Conjunctive, or Eelative Pronouns, . . . , . ib.

111. Functions of Adjective Accessories, ..... 853

112. Accessories in wbicb the Conjunctive Pronoun performs a modify-

ing function as objective to the verb, &c., . . . 856

113. Explicative, or Epithetic Adjective Accessory Propositions, . 859

114. The word What employed as a Eelative, .... 364

115. Compound Eelatives and Accessories formed by their help, . 366

116. Idiomatic use of the word T/ier6, ..... 869

117. Arrangement of the Adjective Accessory in the Compound Propo-

Arrangement of the Conjunctive Pronoun in the Accessory Proposition, ........ 874

11§. Eule for the Number and Person of the Conjunctive Pronoun, . 376

Antecedents of different Persons, ..... 377

Promiscuous Examples of Adjective Accessory Propositions, . 378

119. Adverbial Accessory Propositions. General Eemarl^, . . 380

120. Adverbial Accessories which modify Adjectives, . . . 883

121. Accessory of Greater or Lesser Intensity, .... 386 Accessory of Equally Varying Intensities, .... 388 Accessory indicating Intensity by Example or Effect, . . 389

122. Accessory of Similar Intensity, . . ^ . . . 390

123. Adverbial Accessories which modify Verbs, .... 392 Accessory denoting Manner by Comparison, . . . 893 Accessory denoting Manner by Effect, . • , . 394

124. Adverbial Accessories of Place, ..... 395 Accessory of Locality. Place where, . . . . . 396 Accessory of Direction towards a Place, . ... 397 Accessory of Direction from a Place, . . . ' . , 398

125. Adverbial Accessories of Time, ..... 400 Accessory of Coincident Time, . . . . , ib,

126. Accessory of Coincident Duration, . . ... . 404

127. Accessory indicating Precedence in Time, . . . ♦ . 406

128. Accessory indicating Subsequence in Time, . . . . 407

129. Accessory limiting by reference to an Anticipated event, . . 408 General Eemarks on Accessories of Time, .... 409

.130. Accessory of Causality, . . . , . . 410

181. Argumentative Accessory, ...... 412

132. Accessory of Effect, . . . . . . .417

133. Accessory of Inference, . . • . . . 419

134. Accessory of Purpose, ....... 423

135. Acces-'jory of Purpose Preventive, . . . . . ib.

136. Exceptive Accessory Proposition, ..... 424

CONTENTS. XUl SECT. PAGE.

137. Conditional and Hypothetical Propositions, . . . . 425

138. Concessive Propositions, ...... 430

139. Compound Proposition with Accessory of Eeference," . . 435

140. Contracted Accessories, ...... 436

141. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Verbal Nouns end-

142. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Infinitives, . . 442 Infinitive Absolute, . . . . . . . 446

Infinitive with Accusative before it, . . . . . 447

143. Contracted Accessories formed by the help of Participles, . . 451 Noun and Participle Absolute, ..... 454

CHAPTER X.

COMBINATION OF INDEPENDENT PEOPOSITIONS.

144. General Eemarks on the Combination of Independent Propositions, 458

145. Copulative Co-ordination, or Simple Connection, . . , 460

146. The employment of Co-ordinate for Compound Construction, . '467

147. Adversative and Exceptive Connection, .... 470

148. Connection of Alternatives, ...... 475

149. Additional Eules of Concord, having reference to Connected Co-

ordinate Propositions, ...... 481

150. Observations on But equivalent to only, .... 485

151. Attempt to trace the Transitions of the word BUT, . . . 487

152. Eemarks on the Distinction between Prepositions and Conjunc-

CHAPTER XI.

OF INTEEJEOTIONS AND EXOLAMATOET WOEDS AND PHEASES.

153. Interjections, ......

154. Exclamatory Words and Phrases,

155. Additional Observations on the Personal Pronouns, '

156. Additional Observations on the Possessives,

157. Eemarks on the Genders, ....

158. Additional Observations on the Determinatives. Articles, The Deteiminative An or A, .

The Determinative The, ....

Cases in which TJie is used, ....

Cases in which it is not used, ....

. 495

. 497

. 500

. 508

. 511

. 514

. 517

. 620

. 522

. 525

XIV CONTENTS.

SECT. PASB.

158. The Determinatives TMs and TJiat, . . . . .529 Order of Arrangement of the Determinatives, . ; . 530

159. Additional Observations on the Conjunctive Pronouns W7io,

160. Appendix on Punctuation, .,.,,. g37

161. Appendix on Veesieication, ...... 554

STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE.

Introduction

§ 1. The signs employed in making known to others our feelings, emotions, and thoughts, may be divided into two distinct classes,

(1) NATURAL SIGNS and ARTIFICIAL SIGNS.

(2) In the class of natural signs we include, 1st, signs addressed to the ear — the various sounds indicative of the emotions of our minds ; as, sighs, groans, cries. 2d, Signs addressed to the eye — ■ the various indications of emotion by the expression of the countenance, by smiles, frowns, &c., or by various gestures of the head, arms, and other members of the body. And, 3d, a more limited number of signs addressed to the sense of touch ; as the grasp and pressure of the hand, &c.

(3) Between this class of signs and the feelings or emotions which they indicate there exists a natural bond of association. They do not, like the class of artificial signs, owe their origin in any degree to human contrivance, to the consent of men, to an arbitrary agreement that they shall be used to express exclusively certain feelings, or certain emotions. On the contrary, they flow spontaneously from nature, are not acquired by human industry, and are intelligible alike to men of every nation. (4) The signs of this class constitute what has been called wa/wra^ language. (5) It maybe remarked, in pass-

§ 1. (1) What two distinct classes of Signs are employed in conveying our thoughts and feelings to others ?

(2) Enumerate some of the Ifattiral Signs employed for this purpose.

(3) What distinguishes these signs from those of the second class ? (4) What do these signs constitute ? (5) "What are they best fitted to express ?

INTRODUCTION.

ing, that this species of language is much better adapted to express feehng, or emotion, than to express thought ; and that it is possessed, in a greater or lesser degree, by the lower animals.

§ 2. In the class of artificial signs we include (1) those (in some sense, at least) arbitrary, acquired signs, which constitute the endless variety of dialects employed for the interchange of thought amongst men. (2) These signs, unlike those of natural language^ have no necessary connection with the ideas which they represent, but owe their significance to the contrivance, or to the consent of the distinct races of men who employ them. This class of signs for the communication of thought is distinguished (3) by the name of artificial or articulate language {a).

§ 3. The signs of natural language have (l) the advantage of being universally understood by all mankind. They serve as the only means of communication between those who have not a common dialect. They also express the stronger emotions in the most vivid and impressive manner. (2) But, on the other hand, only a limited portion of our feelings, and few of our thoughts, can be clearly conveyed to the minds of others by these signs. (3) We must have recourse to articulate — artificial language^ for the purpose of commmiicating to others the nicer shades of feeling, and the various products of our thinking powers with a satisfactory degree of perspicuity and fulness.

§ 4. (1) Such a means of communication as articulate language affords, is indispensable both to the complete development and to the proper use of man's rational powers. (2) It is an instrument necessary for the improvement and advancement of reason, for giving precision and fixity to human thought, and securing its retention in the memory of the inquirer, as Avell as for the mutual interchange of the products of thought among men. (3) Our gTacious

(a) See Appendix to this Introduction.

§ 2. (1) What are ArUficial Signs ? (2) "What is the distinguishing characteristic of this class of signs ? (3) By what name are they called ?

§ 3. (1) Point out the advantages of natural language. (2) Point out its defects. (3) Mention some purposes which cannot be effected without recourse to artiflcial language.

§4, (1) To what particular purpose is articulate language indispensable? (2) Eepeaf, • what is said in illustration. (3) How has our Creator displayed his bounty towards man in regard of this matter ?

INTRODUCTION-.

Creator has, accordingly, to complete his bounty to liis rational offspring on earth, added to the gift of reason the gift of organs adapted to enunciate distinctly the truths which reason disco\^ers.

§ 5. It is proper here to observe, that (l) the combination of natural with artificial language is requisite to the most effective communication of our thoughts. (2) Emphasis, inflexions of the voice, tones, expression of the countenance (especially of the eyes), gestures, &c. (all borrowed from natural language), when united with artificial language^ contribute much to render it perspicuous, as well as impressive. Hence, chiefly, the superior charms, and the greater power of spoken compared with loritten discourse. (3) The accomplished and skilful orator combines with the arbitrary signs of artificial language other signs from a language which addresses every class of minds. Even when, on account of the ignorance of his hearers, artificial signs are imperfectly comprehended, natural signs, which are universally intelligible, serve to interpret their meaning. They infuse spirit and life into the dry bones of articulate speech, and may be said to endow it with a li\T[ng soul.

§ 6. (1) Tlie grammarian's researches are exclusively directed to artificial or articulate language. (2) Some few signs, belonging properly to natural language, are found mixed with the signs of artificial language. (3) But these signs — commonly called, in our grammars, interjections — do not come under the laws of gTammar. The grammarian has only to distinguish them from other signs, give them a name, and pass them by.

(4) To explain the laws of artificial language is the particular province of him who proposes to teach the science of grammar. (5) To guide to the proper use of the signs of artificial language, and to the correct interpretation of the thoughts of others embodied in

§5. (1) What is requisite to the most effective communication of human thought? (2) Illustrate this assertion. To -what are the superior charms and the gi-eater power of spoken discourse attributable? Answer. Chiefly, if not exclusively, to the combination of natural with artificial language. (3) Illustrate this assertion.

§6. (1) To which of these langxiages are the grammarian's researches directed? (2) Are the signs of natural language ever found mixed with those of artificial language ? (3) If so, what are they called — do they come under the laws of grammar, and what has the grammarian to do with them?

(4) What is the pro\ince (or peculiar business) of him who teaches the science of grammar? (5) Of the teacher of grammar as an a/*if (6) What is the course pm-sued in

4 INTRODUCTION.

language, so far as this can be effected by reference to the laws and usages of language, is the province of him who proposes to teach grammar as an art. (6) In practical treatises for the instruction of the young, the science and the art are usually taught together. The laws of language, to some extent, are explained in connection with their practical application to a particular language. (7) It seems the most judicious course to teach the elementary principles of universal grammar (the science of grammar) in connection with the particular grammar of our mother tongue, and with the aid of illustrations drawn, as much as possible, from that language of which the forms, usages, and significance are most familiar to us.

§ 7. (1) Artificial language is presented to us in two distinct forms, viz., spoken language and written language. It is often necessary, in grammatical researches, to keep steadily in view the distinction between these two forms of language. (2) A neglect of this precaution has frequently led to confusion of thought and inaccuracy of expression. (3) Spoken language consists of signs of thought^ expressed by the organs of speech, and addressed to the ears. These signs are called words. (4) Written language, on the other hand, consists of signs of these signs ; that is, of signs of words. (5) We call both classes of signs words ; and hence frequent confusion. (6) It is to be wished that we had a special name for a tvritten word, to distinguish it, where necessary, from a spoken word, and also a name for a written letter, to distinguish it from a spoken sound.

§ 8. (1) It is not by the use of separate unconnected words, repeated in succession without rule or law, but by the properly regulated combination of words, that we, in almost every case, communicate our thoughts to one another. Though it is not to be denied that every word has significance of some sort (2), a single word is seldom in our language the sign of a complete thought. (3) We cannot

grammars intended for the instruction of the young ? (T) What method is recommended as judicious?

. § T. (1) In what two distinct forms is artificial language presented to us ? (2) Why is it necessary to keep this distinction in view ? Ans. Because " a neglect," «&c. (3) Of what does spoken language consist? (4) Of what written language? (5) By what common name are the signs of spoken and written language designated ? (6) What is to be wished in order to avoid the danger of confounding spoken signs and loritten sig7is ?

% 8. (1) Do we generally express our thoughts by unconnected words, or by combinations of words? (2) Are single words often in owe language the signs of complete

INTRODUCTIOjST. 5

announce clearly in tlie English language even the simple fact that we are cold, without the use of more than one word. The shortest form of expressing this simple thought requires the use of three words, I am cold. Each^of these words is, no doubt, a significant sign, but, at the same time, incapable alone of communicating a clear declaration of thought to those around us. (4) Again, every combination of words will not express thought. A combination made at random generally expresses nothing but nonsense.

(5) Hence the necessity of paying attention to the principles which regulate, in each particular language, the combination of words, in order to express thought clearly and forcibly. The investigation of these principles is the purpose proposed in a treatise on grammar. (6) It is to the fact that the artificial signs, which unite to express our thoughts, are complicated, and require skilful combination, that the Laws of G-rammar owe their origin. (7) If every word served as the sign of a complete thought, whilst the number of words requisite for the purpose of communicating our thoughts (contrary to what might, at first sight, be expected) would be greatly increased. Grammar would either be altogether useless, or its province would be greatly limited, and entirely changed. This may be illustrated by referring to some few words in our language which express a complete thought : (8) for example, Yes and No. Such words fall not within the ordinary rules, nor even within the ordinary classifications and nomenclature of grammar. All complexity is here excluded, since a single sign expresses a complete thought ; consequently, the application of all laws of combination is excluded. Grammatical science and art, as now understood, are null and useless, so far as concerns such signs.

§ 9. After these prehminary remarks, the reader will be prepared to find that (1) words — the classification of words, the MODIFICATION OR CHANGES OF FORM whicli WORDS undcrgo iu ordcr

thoughts ? (3) Repeat the illustration. (4) Do all combinations of words, or combinations made at random, express thought ?

(5) What is the inference drawn from these facts? (6) To what do the laws of grammar owe their origin ? (7) If every word were to serve as the sign of a complete thought, what consequences would follow in reference to the number of words necessary to form a copious language, and in reference to systems of grammar? (8) Illustrate this position.

§ 9. (1) Enumerate the subjects which ai'e to engage our attention in the following pages.

6 APPENDIX TO INTRODUCTION.

to express a modified meaning, and, especially, the laws or prin ciPLES which regulate the combination of words for the purpose of expressing thought, form the subject matter of the following pages,