The world's crisis

Front matter

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THE WORLD'S

Preface

This volume has been written during the last two years, amidst the pressure of constant and imperative engagements, and with several long interruptions caused by absence from home and by protracted attacks of disease. The fact is not mentioned to excuse the faults which the critical reader may observe; but because it cannot escape notice that different portions were written at periods separated by wide intervals of time.

The second " Book," giving a view of the political state of Europe, was completed early in the fall of 1866: the entire Manuscript was ready for the press in the spring of 1867. Consequently, the view of European events is nearly eighteen months old ; and the political condition of our own country is depicted from the standpoint of nine months ago. In one point of view, this is a defect. But the rapid movement of events forbids the delay necessary for such a revisal, as would bring the work up to the standpoint of the present. The author, however, is the chief sufferer from the lapse of time since different portions of the work were written; for much that he predicted has become history; and many tendencies outlined in this work long before they had been suggested elsewhere, have now been perceived by the general public, and are no longer novel suggestions. Events have moved faster than the pen, and the author, in many instances, finds himself behind the status of the time, where he hoped to lead the van of thought. This, however, will not be esteemed an unmitigated misfortune, if the prognostications already fulfilled shall

PREFACE.

cause a candid examination of the suggestions respecting events yet lying in the future.

In justice to himself and others, the author must disclaim any wish to be considered the exponent of the views of any political party. Responsibility for the opinions and the policy suggested in this work rests with him alone. Political expediency and the rally words of the moment have not been considered in it. The range of thought is too broad for a merely political work; and many of the views presented, clashing with prejudices and views of present expediency, may perhaps prove unpalatable to persons of all parties, and all sections.

The author is not, nor does he propose to become, a politician. He has not written from a party, nor from a sectional, but from an American standpoint. If he advocates Conservatism, he does so because the principles of Conservatism constitute, as he conceives, the only hope of America and of mankind : If he assails Radicalism, it is not from party spirit, but because Radicalism is destructive of our prosperity, of Republicanism, and of the best hopes of man. He does not aim to discuss the questions involved in such a manner as to fall in with the views, passions, and prejudices of the time: his sole aim is truth ; his object discussion from the elevated philosophic point of view the future historian will occupy when the parties of the past and present, with their principles and their policy, shall be regarded with calmness, and the dispassionate verdict of posterity pronounced upon them. His aim is not the advocacy of partisan or sectional issues ; but the development of the true principles of Republican government ; the presentation of the momentous world-important issues involved in the existing crisis; and the suggestion of the policy necessary to save from impending ruin the prosperity of Our Country and the cause of Human Progress.

THE CONTENTS.

Introduction

STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION.

Our age a transition period from an old to a new era. Feudalism worn out, and must give way to a new form of social order. Two principles struggling for the mastery of the new era: — Liberal monarchy verging upon Republicanism, toward which it is tending — Absolute despotism aspiring, under Russia, to universal dominion — These principles have long been struggling for the supremacy in Europe, and their struggle is approaching a crisis which will give to one or the other a definitive victory. — The United States holds the scales, and upon its policy, as determined in the next Presidential election, will depend the issue of the struggle, and the destiny of the earth for generations to come. This fact constitutes this " THE WORLD'S CRISIS."

2. This work will discuss the questions that come within its scope, under the three following propositions :

Prop. I. The Government of the United States has, almost throughout its entire career, maintained a system op administration in violation of the fundamental principles of the Constitution: with the effect upon HOME AFFAIRS of tarnishing the National Honor; dwarfing our Industrial Prosperity; warping our Social Life; and plunging the country into frightful Political Evils.

Prop. II. These past violations of the Constitution have reacted most injuriously upon Foreign Nations : fostering a false Industrial System throughout the World; gendering dangerous Social Evils; and strengthening the cause of Absolutism, rescuing it from ruin, and giving birth to a political reaction eminently dangerous to the cause of Liberty and Advancement.

Prop. III. The present is a crisis in which the Government of the United States may, by a wise and conservative policy, enable the country to enter upon a course of Unexampled Prosperity ; and exert an influence upon Foreign Affairs that will arrest the Industrial and Political Evils now menacing the World with ruin : But where an ill-advised policy will involve the COUN-

TRY in Financial Ruin ; and suffer the Woeld to drift without restraint into a Chaos of convulsion, threatening with overthrow the cause of Human Advancement.

These Propositions attribute to the United States an extent of influence which requires that we show, in an

.DTTEODUCTOET DISSERTATION,

THE UNITED STATES A NATION OF PROVIDENCE.

Chapter I. Fokeshadowings Of An Exalted Destiny

Sec. I. The Circumstances of the Colonization of America.

I. The reservation of the country from French and Spanish Catholic ad-

venturers.

II. Its settlement by fugitives from religious persecution.

III. The circumstances which preserved the hardy virtues of the Colonists.

Sec. 2. The Revolutionary War.

I. The Preparatory Era — The Old French War. Preparative for the suc-

cess of the struggle : — The increase of the military spirit of the Colonies — The preparation of the maritime States of Europe to make common cause with the revolted Colonies. — Inaugurating the collisions which brought on the struggle.

II. The War of Independence. The advantages of Britain : — Her superiority

in wealth and power, and in the quality of her troops — Her superiority of position, having command of the sea. — The means by which her superiority was prevented from being decisive: Three plans of operations open to the British, either of which would have proved decisive : — First plan: to move upon the Colonies from Boston — Means by which the plan was rendered abortive. Second and third plans : to sever the Colonies on the line of the Hudson; and to assail the South: — Why they failed of success: Contrary winds — Escape of Washington from Long Island and New York — Campaign in the Jerseys — Howe's failure to co-operate with Burgoyne — Burgoyne's dilatory tactics — His fatal error. Other Providential events: The storms which prevented decisive engagements of French and English fleets. — the contrary winds which saved American army at Newport — the detection of Arnold's treason — The Battle of King's Mountain — the Providential escape of Greene from the pursuit of Cornwallis — The Providential events which resulted in the capture of Cornwallis. — Washington's opinion.

THE CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE II.

THE PROVIDENTIAL MISSION OF THE UNITED STATES — the establishment of Republicanism throughout the earth.

Sec. I. The unexampled excellence of our system of government.

I. Organic defects of former republics. The want of a representative sys-

tem ; and of a proper distribution of the powers of government. Exemplified in Athenian Republic. — The clashing of rival classes. Exemplified in Greek republics and in Rome. — The lack of the Federal principle. — The evil of Leagues: — The Amphictyonic Council — The Swiss Confederation. — The evils of Centralizations: — The Achaean League.

II. Our system of government avoids all those errors. Manner in which

principles of Republican government were slowly evolved during centuries. The evolution of the principle of popular representation : — Its birth and development in England — The evolution of the distribution of the powers of government. — The evolution of the Federal principle: — Providential direction of preliminary events — No example in history — The outline of the proper system suggested : — On the one hand by the relation of the Colonies to the mother country, which was a centralization — On the other by the evils of a disjointed League, as experienced under the old Confederation. — The causes which impelled the States to establish a better government. — The labors of the Constitutional Convention. The outline of governmental powers. — The limitations of Federal power — Giving it entire control over foreign relations — Leaving internal administration in the control of the States. Additional safeguards in constructing the government upon a federal basis : — The Federal Congress — Divided into two branches — The Senate representing the State governments — The House of Representatives representing the people of the several States. — The Senate the conservative branch of the legislature : — The long term of its members, the better enabling it to control the temporary ebullitions of passion in the popular branch of the legislature. — The Federal Executive: — The Representative of the state governments, and the people of the states jointly — His veto power a restraint upon Congress. — The Supreme Court : — Removed from political excitement — Its power to annul Unconstitutional laws.

III. Federal Republicanism the only stable form of Government. Insta-

bility of all other forms of government. — Instability of monarchy : — Necessarily dependent upon force — It is founded upon the support of a limited class: either of — An imperial nation rallying round the throne and holding in subjection conquered provinces ; or — A favored aristocratic class. — It has always been exposed to revolution and revolt. — The instability of monarchy increased with the enlightenment of the age: — Absolute monarchy no longer practicable under existing conditions — Nor is Aristocratic monarchy : — Evident from the French Eevolution — From the course of events in England. — Nor is liberal monarchy; because — Monarchy is of necessity a centralization, and a centralization can only be maintained by force. — The time is coming when monarchy, as it now exists, can rule by force no longer. — The only possibility of a much longer continuance of monarchy lies in some nation attaining Universal Dominion. Instability of all other systems of Republicanism. Instability of all Confederations of states, united either in Centralizations or Leagues. — Instability of republics consisting of a single state; arising from — Their exercise of all powers of administration, domestic as well as foreign — This causes neglect of governmental duties and abuses of administration, leading to discontent and revolution — The only remedy for this is the distribution of power, as in a federal republic. The stability of our system of government Centralization of power is the prime cause of the downfall of republics : — It causes the convulsions, whatever form they assume, which subvert republics — The only remedy is the distribution of power — In the American Constitution the distribution of power carried almost to perfection : — The internal administration left with the states — The internal administration is so complex and so important that, if deposited in a single hand, it would inevitably lead to convulsions — But, divided among all the states, it produces no excitement whatever. — The Federal government having control of foreign affairs — Its powers distributed between the three departments of government — All elections quiet except the presidential, which shows that the power exercised by the executive is too extensive — The powers of the office more extensive than were contemplated by the framers of the constitution. — The evils that have troubled the country have been caused by the unconstitutional centralization of all powers of administration, domestic as well as foreign, in the hands of the Federal government. — The excellence of our system of government when constitutionally administered: — It is the most efficient government — It secures the most perfect equity of administration — It maintains perfect domestic tranquillity. — Such a system of government capable of maintaining tranquillity in any country, even though the population be little advanced in civilization. — Such a government capable of indefinite expansion, becoming more stable

as its boundaries are enlarged.

Sec. 2. The past career of the United States evidence of its providential mission.

I. The unprecedented progress of the countrt. The causes of this unexampled progress : — A new age of industry — Caused by striking and novel inventions.

II. The political influence of the country. In the past : — In giving a new impulse to liberty — Tn giving direction to popular aspirations. — Our influence has almost effected the overthrow of feudal monarchy. — We are destined to yet greater political influence in the future : — Proved by the analogies of past history.

Book I

EVILS INFLICTED UPON OUR OWN COUNTRY BY OUR VIOLATIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION.

Prop. I. The Government of the United States has, almost throughout its entire career, maintained a system of administration in violation o/the fundamental principles of the Constitution: with the effect upon HOME AFFAIRS of tarnishing the National Honor ; dwarfing our Industrial Prosperity; warping our Social Life; and plunging the country into frightful Political Evils.

Part I. Evils Of The Carrying Trade

CHAPTER I.

THE ERA OF FEDERALIST RULE.

Sect. I. Policy of the Federalists.

The industrial condition of the country. — The establishment of the Bank : — A policy of Centralization. — Motives which influenced Washington to sign the bill — The first false step, from which we have never recovered. — Hamilton's scheme of power. — The French Revolution: — Its influence upon American politics.

Sect. 2. Humiliations arising from the policy of the Federalists. The annihilation of the French marine. — The Bank precipitates the country into the Carrying trade. — Deteriorating effects of the trade upon the national character. — Complications with France. — British aggressions: — Jay's treaty — Its shameful conditions. — Antagonism with France. — Adams' administration — French insults to our envoys — Popular indignation. — Alien and Sedition laws. — Division of sentiment among the Federalists — The policy of Adams — Alienation of members of his party — Treaty with France — Election of 1800 — Intrigues which weakened the Federalists — Triumph of the Republicans.

CHAPTEE II.

THE ERA OF REPUBLICAN RULE.

Peace of Amiens — Renewal of the war — Violations of our flag — Defensive measures — British paper blockade — British policy — The position of the United States — British restrictions — The Berlin decree — British orders in council — The Milan decree — The Embargo — Impropriety of the measure — Repeal and passage of non-intercourse act — Negotiations — Declaration of war with England — Resume.

Part II. Evils Of The American System

CHAPTEE I.

NORMAL CAREER OF THE UNITED STATES.

Sect. I. The Normal Industrial development of the United

States.

I. The Normal Industrial career of the United States at the inauguration of the Government. The true industrial sphere of the United States, — to become the manufacturer for the world. We excel all other countries in the conditions essential to manufacturing success: — An energetic and enterprising population having adaptation to mechanical industry — An abundant home supply of raw material — An abundant home supply of provisions for operative population. — Nature has marked the United States as the great world-manufacturing site. Obstacles that had prevented our engaging in manufactures before the adoption of the Federal constitution : — In the Colonial period — Under the old Confederation. Advantages for manufacturing at the inauguration of the Federal Government. — The new government put an end to all previous disadvantages : — The industrial condition of the country was eminently favorable to manufactures — Immense advantages of the American manufacturer, at that era, over British competition. — These advantages and the condition of the country would necessarily have turned the enterprise of the country into them, if industry had been left to its natural course: — But Hamilton's United States Bank changed the course of industry. — It made manufactures impossible: — By inflating the currency and enhancing all prices; thus increasing the cost of production — By embarking the enterprise of the country in the speculations of the carrying trade.

II. Normal industrial career of the United States after the peace of 1815. Once again the state of the country presented the necessary conditions of manufacturing success, and would have forced us upon a career of manufacturing greatness. The state of the country directing emigration toward the South. — This rush of emigration would have glutted the cotton market, and caused the South to be self sustaining, as regards the necessaries of life. — The influence of general stagnation in forcing the West to engage in manufactures: — Without a market in the South, or in the East, the West, being unable to import, would have been driven to manufactures to supply the home demand. — The cheap cost of manufacturing in the West. — Far cheaper than in England: — It had an abundance of labor, raw material, and provisions, all at the lowest rates. — Prices of all were low on account of — The state of the currency — The want of demand — The low rate of taxation. — While the cost of manufacturing wa3 low beyond example, the difficulty of transportation from the seaboard made the price of all manufactured articles extravagantly high. — Cheap production and high sales would have given birth to Western manufactures, especially when there was no other opening to enterprise. — Vast superiority of the West, then, over Great Britain as a site for manufactures : — The Western manufacturer had a cheaper power than the English — The Western manufacturer had cheaper raw material — Provisions cheaper in the West — Labor cheaper in the West. — These advantages would have made the West the seat of manufactures for the world. — We should have had a world-wide- commerce. — The natural features of the West point it out as the destined seat of the world's manufactures. — Its destiny must yet be attained.

Sect. 2. Normal Social state of the United States.

Our normal industrial career would have reacted upon our social life.

I. We should have escaped social excitement.

II. No oppression of the laboring classes : — Of the factory operative popula-

lation — Nor of the slave population of the South. — Slavery, from industrial causes, would have been a mild institution : — No slave trade between the States — No excessive exaction of labor — Natural causes would have gradually brought about emancipation. — Virtuous simplicity of manners would have characterized the social life of the whole country.

Sect. 3. The normal political destiny oe the United States. I. Political agitations avoided. Party passions could not have arisen : — No sectional bitterness — No Tariff agitation — No Slavery excitement. — We should have been an united, harmonious people — one in interest, in aim. — Then we might have exerted an unalloyed and irresistible influence for freedom.

II. Our prosrerity perpetual. The Constitution prevents the fomentation of political agitations, by governmental action. — Our social condition would have prevented the social demoralization so dangerous to states. — Our geographical position would prevent the centralization of commerce and wealth, which generates corruption and leads to decline.

Chapter II. Influence Of The American System In Warping Our

INDUSTRY.

Sect. 1. Eise of the American* System.

General depression at the close of the war with England. — Bank and Tariff as relief measures. — Bank (for obvious reasons) did not afford the desired relief: — The inflation of the currency by the Bank enhanced the cost of production, and made manufactures impracticable — Ruinous effect of an inflated currrency upon national industry. — Manufactures being impracticable, owing to the Bank, industry continues to languish, except in the South — Flourishing condition of the South, and large emigration to that section. — Efforts to force manufactures by means of a high protective Tariff. — Mr. Clay's plan of Tariff and Internal Improvements — Defeated during Monroe's administration. — The Tariff of 1824.

Sect. 2. Ruinous influence of the American system upon the development of our manufactures.

I. The Bank and Tariff dwarfed our manufactures by locating them in New

England. The manner in which this was effected. — The West, by this means, diverted from manufactures, to supply the other sections with produce. — The disadvantages of a New England location.

II. The Bank and Tariff dwarf our manufactures through the abnormal

system they originate — A vast system of interchange between the sections. — Its injury to industry : — Rendering vast resources nugatory — Levying charges upon productive industry — Enhancing the scale of prices by promoting a spirit of speculation — Withdrawing a vast amount of capital and population, otherwise engaged in manufactures, and embarking them in internal traffic.

III. The Bank and Tariff dwarf our manufactures by their own direct in-

fluence in raising the standard of prices. The inflation of the currency an injury to productive industry. — The injurious influence of currency inflation not compensated by a Tariff: — The enhancement of prices

* By a latitude of expression, the phrase American System, is used as including the Bank, the Tariff, and Internal Improvements.

increases the cost of production in the ratio of the increase of prices — This causes combinations to force down labor and agricultural produce to an inadequate price.

Chapter III. Influence Of The American System In Perverting Our

SOCIAL LIFE.

Sect. 1. Social excitement resultant from our abnormal, forced industrial system.

Influence of commerce in quickening the springs of social life : — An excessive commercial activity causes abnormal social excitement. — Effect of our excessive internal traffic upon our social life : — Lowered the scale of intellect in public life — Promoted social demoralization — Abnormal state of Southern society.

Sect. 2. Oppression of the Industrial population, through our abnormal industrial system.

Oppression of the laboring class. Oppression of Northern labor: — The farming population — The city laborers — The factory operatives. — Oppression of Southern labor: — The poor whites — The negro population — The slave trade between the States — The severance of family ties — The subversion of the old relation existing between master and servant — Excessive exaction of labor.

CHAPTEE IT.

INFLUENCE OF THE AMERICAN SYSTEM IN EXCITING POLITI- CAL ANIMOSITIES.

Sect. I. The American System, the prolific Source of Political Evils.

Original good-feeling between the sections. — Alarm of the South. — Tariff of 1824.— Tariff of 1828 :— Extreme Southern excitement— Election of Jackson.

I. The contest over the American System during the Administration op Jackson. The balance of parties. — Tactics of the opposing factions — Jackson's policy of rotation in office : — Its ruinous effects. — Attack on the Bank of the United States. — The breach, with Mr. Calhoun. — The contest over the Tariff: — Caution of Jackson — Nullification — The Compromise Tariff. — Contest over the Bank: — Jackson's motley party — Advantages of the Bank — The removal of the deposits. — Summary. — Character of Jackson.

II. Subsequent Contest over the American System. Whig triumph of 1840: — Death of Harrison prevents the definitive success of their measures — Tyler's course — Veto of Bank. — Tariff of 1842. — Election of 1844. — Tariff reduced to revenue standard.

Sect. 2. The Slavery Agitation.

Sectional animosities growing out of tariff agitation: — Anti-slavery agitation — Uneasiness of the South — Annexation of Texas — The blunder of a war with Mexico — Sectional strife over the annexed territories — Compromise of 1850 — The Kansas-Nebraska Act — Anti-slavery party formed — Furious agitation — The Kansas strife — The excitability of the public mind — All moderate measures fail — Fatal termination of agitation in war.

Book II

Prop. II. Our past violations op the Constitution have reacted most injuriously upon FOREIGN NATIONS : fostering a False Industrial System throughout the WORLD; gendering dangerous Social Evils; and strengthening the cause of Absolutism, rescuing it from ruin, and giving birth to a political reaction eminently dangerous to the cause of Liberty and Advancement.

PART I.

OUR VIOLATIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION HAVE INJURED FOREIGN NATIONS BY FOSTERING A FALSE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM THROUGHOUT THE WORLD.

Chapter I. British Monopoly Of Commerce

Sect. 1. The Elements and Principles of Commerce. Sect. 2. British Centralization of Commerce.

This centralization of commerce based upon our industry. — Extent of the

British centralization of commerce. — Its injury to the industry of the

world.

Chapter II. British Centralization Of Wealth

Profits of British mercantile traffic in the products of other countries. — Profits of manufactures. — The expenditure of the country — Prevalence of economy — Balance of trade explained — Growth of all branches of British enterprise — Loans to foreign nations — Britain ruining the world — Crafty utterances of British statesmen — Crafty policy of British capitalists — British imperialism of capital — Present prosperity of the nations delusive.

PART II.

OUR VIOLATIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION HAVE INJURED THE WORLD, BY GENDERING SOCIAL EVILS DANGEROUS TO CIVILIZATION.

CHAPTER I.

SOCIAL EXCITEMENT.

Origin of the prevailing social excitement. — Forms of social excitement: — No repose — Continual agitation. — Mental Deterioration of the Age. — The golden mean suited to the germination of Genius. — Great men of former ages. — The decay of poesy — Of oratory — Of literature — Of statesmanship. — Socialistic mania. — Various classes of visionaries: — Political visionaries — Social monomaniacs — Religious monomaniacs — Christian apostacy. — Menacing ruin.

CHAPTER II.

THE OPPRESSION OF POVERTY.

Necessary result of abnormal system of commerce : — The poor of all countries oppressed by it — Especially the poor of Great Britain. — Grades of English society. — Aristocracy — Middle Class — Working Class. — Suffering of the impoverished scions of Nobility — Of Middle Class — Of Working Class. — Prevalence of economy : — The Lodging-house system — Hunger — Mutual insurance — Burial customs: — Petty pilfering — "Tramps" — Destitution — Poverty un pitied. — Governmental legislation : — Licensed Drunkenness— Pawnbrokers — the Poor-house system. — Class subordination. — Moral condition of English poor: — Cheating and pilfering universal — Drunkenness and crime increasing— Irreligion — Heathenism — Degraded vice. — Inadequacy of all measures of amelioration: — Only remedy the overthrow of the industrial system out of which it arises.

Part III

OUR UNCONSTITUTIONAL COURSE HAS INJURED THE WORLD POLITICALLY : STRENGTHENING ABSOLUTISM ; RESCUING IT FROM RUIN ; AND GIVING BIRTH TO A PO- LITICAL REACTION EMINENTLY DANGEROUS TO THE CAUSE OF LIBERTY 'AND ADVANCEMENT.

CHAPTER I.

POLITICAL CONDITION OF ENGLAND.

The British government in sympathy with Absolutism : — Not a government of the people — Rule of Aristocracy. — Historical review. — Origin of the House of Commons — Falls under the control of the Nobility — Reform Bill of 1832. — Object of the Whigs in framing it — A compromise. — Whig and Tory contests. — 'The balance of parties — Triumph of the Whigs in 1846 — A motley party — Conservative Whigs — Liberals — Liberals hold balance of power — Administrative reforms — Reform agitation: — Demand of administrative reforms — Parliamentary reform. — Whig and Tory intrigues. — Both try to use Reform, to increase party strength. Tory intrigue with Liberals: — Its failure. — Whig coalition and intrigue — Failure. — Tory accession to power: — The party policy — Its certainty of success — Tory triumph definitive. — England, under Tory rule committed to Absolutism.

CHAPTER II.

POLITICAL CONDITION OF EUROPE.

Sect. 1, General Statement oe the Question.

Disquieting elements of the European system. — Dynastic ambition : — Balance of Power. — Restlessness of Nationalities: — The oppressed Nationalities of Europe.

Sect. 2. Causes which brought about the Present Condition of Europe. 1. Conquest. 2. The Feudal system. — Feudalism. — Decline of royal authority. — (1.) Course of events in France: — Wars with English Plantagenets. — Increase of royal power — Consolidation of French territory — Loss of the Flemish provinces — (2.) Course of events in England: — Consolidation of power. — (3.) Course of events in Germany: — Decline of imperial authority — Nobility become sovereign princes — Rise of feudal house of Austria — Rise of feudal house of Prussia.

Sect. 3. Forces in Conflict to Overthrow and Maintain the Old Order of things.

I. First Epoch : Wars of the French Revolution. Monarchs assail

France — Revolution triumphant under Napoleon — The conqueror embraces the policy of Absolutism — Overthrow, by outbreak of national patriotism. '.

II. Second Epoch: The Rule of Absolutism from 1815 to 1848. The

•treaties of 1815.: — Holy alliance — Russia the champion of Absolutism. — Revolutions of 1830: — Absolutism still dominant.

III. Third Epoch: The successful Aggression of French Progressive

Ideas from 1848 to 1866. (1.) First Period: The Revolutionary outburst. — French Revolution of 1848: — Agitations throughout Europe — Timidity of France — Supremacy of British influence — Suppression of popular ebullitions. — Policy of Napoleon III for restoring the Nationality. — Policy of the despots. — (2.) /Second Period : Napoleon emerges from isolation. — Russian ambition : — Crimean war. — (3.) Third Period: Napoleon s Restoration of Italian Nationality. — Preliminary measures — Victor Emanuel's intrigues — Austrian menace — Napoleon's intervention — Italian war — Napoleon's cautious policy — Results of the war — Conquest of Naples. — Italian excitement against Austria — Napoleon's treaty respecting Rome. — German war: — Cession of Venetia. (4.) The Napoleonic programme for effecting the national unity of Germany. German agitation upon the Holstein-Schleswig question: — Interference of the German Diet — Intervention of Prussia and Austria — Danish war — Napoleon's policy. — Ambition of Prussia : — Opposed by all the German states — Favored by Napoleon. — Russo-Italian alliance. — Napoleon's programme. — German war: — Prussian triumph — Intervention of France — Treaty of peace.