Farm friends and farm foes : a text-book of agricultural science

Preface

This book is intended to serve as a text and guide for the study of those plants and animals so vitally related to crop production as often to determine success or failure therein. The information given embodies the latest researches of that host of investigators who have done such great service in the advancement of agriculture in recent years. The text has been so combined with directions for observation and expression that it is hoped that teachers will be able to lead their pupils to a first-hand knowledge of the most important plants, insects, birds, and mammals to be found in the region of the school.

Most of the original engravings are from drawings by Mr. W. I. Beecroft, a few being adapted from the publications of authors to whom credit is given in the list of illustrations. Many of the insect pictures are from woodcuts originally made for the classic report on Insects Injurious to Vegetation, by Dr. T. W. Harris, for the use of which thanks are returned to Mr. J. Lewis Ellsworth, Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. For courtesies in connection with other illustrations I am indebted to Misses Hazel Dearth, Alice Manning, and I. S. Cragin, and Messrs. James Flail, A. I. Randall, E. D. Sanderson, A. D. Selby, A. H. Verrill, and C. W. Woodworth, as well as to the Experiment Stations of Illinois and New Hampshire and the United States Department of Agriculture. I have also to thank Mr. W. F. Fiske, of the Gypsy Moth Laboratory, for kindly reading the proof of the chapters on Predaceous and Parasitic Insects.

C. M. W. iii

Part I Friends And Foes Among The Weeds Chapter Page

I. The Weeds of Roadsides and Waste Places .

II. The Weeds of Meadows and Pastures .

III. The Weeds of Gardens and Cultivated Fields

IV. The Weeds of Grain and Forage Crops . V. The Economics of Weeds i

45 55

Part II Friends And Foes Among The Insects

VI. ORTHOPTERA : THE GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS, AND COCK- ROACHES 65

VII. HEMIPTERA : THE TRUE BUGS 73

VIII. The Butterflies and Moths 96

IX. The Two-winged Flies 122

X. Coleoptera: the Beetles 131

XI. Hymenoptera : the Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies . 149

XII. Insecticides and their Application 155

XIII. The Predaceous Insects 163

XIV. The Four-winged Parasites 174

XV. The Two- winged Parasites 188

XVI. The Pollination and Fertilization of Flowers . .194

XVII. The Insect Pollinators 203

Part III Friends And Foes Among The Fungi

XVIII. The Mushrooms, Toadstools, and Molds . . .215

XIX. The Downy Mildews 219

XX. The Smut Fungi 226

XXI. The Rusts 231

v vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

XXII. The Ascospore and Other Fungi 242

XXIII. Bacterial Diseases of Plants 229

XXIV. Preventives of Fungous Diseases 264

XXV. Fungous Diseases of Insects . . . . . .271

XXVI. Bacteria and Plant Food 275

Part IV Friends And Foes Among The Birds

XXVII. The Relations of Birds to Fruit Orchards . . 285

XXVIII. The Relations of Birds to Meadows and Pastures . 291

XXIX. The Relations of Birds to Gardens and Fields . 296

Part V Friends And Foes Among The Mammals

XXX. The Squirrels 3°7

XXXI. The Mice and Rats 3 12

XXXII. The Rabbits, Pocket Gophers, Moles, and Shrews . 321

Bibliography 3 2 &

Index 329

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Monarch Butterfly. From Nature Biographies ..... xi

Cover Design for Booklet. From a Japanese Stencil .... 2

Dandelion Seedheads .......... 5

Broad-leaved Dock .......... 8

Evening Primrose ........... 10

Toadflax or Butter-and-Eggs . . . . . . . . .11

Milkweed Pods 13

Sprig of Johnson Grass. Redrawn from Cates and Spill man . . 14

Squirrel-tail Grass ........... 15

Canada Thistle ........... 18

Milkweed Seeds ........... 21

Poison Hemlock ........... 26

Poison Ivy. From Drawing by A. I. Randall ..... 27

Shepherd's Purse ........... 33

White Pigweed 35

Ragweed 37

Clotbur 38

Ground Cherry or Physalis ......... 40

Gill-over-the-Ground .......... 44

Mixture of Weed Seeds. From U. S. Department of Agriculture . 46

Spud 5 6

Broad-leaved Dock. Redrawn from Henkel . 59

Goldenrod Seedheads .......... 61

Cover Design for Booklet on Insects ....... 64

Mouth Parts of Grasshopper 66

vii viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Grasshopper : Nymph and Adult 66

Oblong Leaf-winged Grasshopper. From Harris ..... 67

Common Cricket. Female. From Harris ...... 68

Tree Crickets : Male and Female. From Harris ..... 68

Mole Cricket. From Harris 70

Chinch Bug. From Harris ......... 75

Map showing Distribution of Chinch Bugs. After Webster ... 76 Periodical Cicada ........... 79

Tree Hoppers. From Harris ........ 80

Scale Insects on Rose 83

Black Scale 85

Spring Grain Aphis. Redrawn from Webster ..... 88

Eggs of Apple Aphis . . . . . . . . . .91

Ant attending Aphides .......... 92

Elm Leaf affected by Aphides ........ 93

Cicada emerging from Nymph Skin. Photograph by A. H. Verrill . 95 Promethea Moth Cocoon ...... ... 96

Orange-dog Caterpillars. Photograph by A. H. Verrill. ... 98

Butterfly of Orange-dog Caterpillar. Photograph by A. H. Verrill . 99

Tent Caterpillar ........... 103

Gypsy Moth 104

Army Worm 108

Cutworm Larva. From Harris . . . . . . . .110

Cotton Bollworm. Photograph by A. H. Verrill . . . . .ill

Codling Moth 113

Apples showing Calyx Open and Calyx Closed . . . . .114

Leaf Roller Moth. From Harris . . . . . . 115

Peach-twig Borer. After Clarke . . . . . . . . 117

Tineid Moth 118

Winter Nest of Brown-tail Moth 121

Hessian Fly Magnified 123

Apple Maggot 125

Channels of Apple Maggot . . . . . . . . .126

Cabbage Maggot. Adapted from Washburn . . . . .127

White Grub or May Beetle . . . . . . . . .131

Lamellicorn Beetle. From Harris . . „ . . . .132

Potato injured by White Grub . . . . . . . .132

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix

PAGE

Rose Chafer. From Harris. ........

Eyed Elater. From Harris .........

Leaf Beetle. From Harris .........

Colorado Potato Beetle

Flea Beetle

Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. From Harris .....

Plum Curculio ...........

Strawberry Weevil. Redrawn from Riley ......

Peach injured by Curculio .........

Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil .........

Infested Cotton Square ..........

Cherry Sawfly ...........

Willow Sawfly Larva ..........

Head of Aphis. Redrawn from Slingerland .....

A Simple Spraying Outfit. Redrawn from Marlait ....

Tiger Beetles. From Harris ........

Ground Beetles. From Harris . . .

Tiger Beetle Larva. From Harris .......

Ladybird Beetle and Pupa. From Harris

Blister Beetle. Frotn Harris ........

Robber Fly. From Harris . . . .

Egg Mass of Mantis

Dragon-fly. From Harris .........

Ichneumon Fly ovipositing in Cocoon . . .....

Long-tailed Ichneumon Fly. From Harris ......

Ichneumon Fly and Chrysalis. Photography by A. H. Verrill Ichneumon Flies. From Harris ........

Cocoons of Microgaster Flies. From Harris .....

Caterpillar with Cocoons of Parasites .......

Parasite of Grain Aphis. Redrawn from Washburn ....

Chalcid Parasite of Gypsy Moth's Eggs. After Howard

Pelecinus Fly ...........

Tachinid of Army Worm. Draxvn from Photograph by Slingerland

Tachinid Parasite of Gypsy Moth. After Fiske

Cherry Blossoms . . .........

x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Structure of Cherry Blossom ......... 19c

Pollination and Fertilization ......... 19c

Cucumber Flowers. After Drawings by James Hall . . . .196

Strawberry Blossoms . . . . . . . . . .198

Leg of Bumblebee ........... 202

Bumblebee. Photograph by A. H Verrill ...... 205

Pear Leaf Blight. Redrawn from Galloway . . . . . .214

Mushroom Spawn. Drawn from Photograph by Atkinson . . .216 Mycelium of Mold. Redrawn from Zopf . . . . . .217

A Dying Mushroom . . . . . . . . . .218

Potato Leaf affected with Late Blight. After Galloway . . . 220

Corn Smut. Drawn from Photograph by Selby ..... 228

Spore Germinating: seen from Above. Redrawn from R. E. Smith . 232 Spore Germinating: seen from Side. Redrawn from R. E. Smith . 232 Black Knot on Wild Cherry ......... 243

Apples dwarfed by Scab. Redrawn from Chester ..... 246

Apples affected by Bitter Rot. From Scott, U. S. Department of Agriculture ............ 247

Brown Rot Spores Developing ........ 248

Brown Rot Spores Germinating 248

Potato Leaf affected by Early Blight. After Galloway .... 255

Bee's Claw with Blight Bacteria. After Whetzel and Stewart . . 260 Fly with Fungus ........... 273

Soy Bean Root showing Tubercles. From Hopkins .... 277

Red Clover: Effect of Bacteria. Drawn from Photograph by Hopkins . 279 The White-throated Sparrow. After Biological Survey . . . 284

Tent Caterpillar Nest attacked by Birds 287

May Beetle. From Harris . . . . . . . . .291

Click Beetles. From Harris ........ 292

Meadow Grasshopper. From Harris ....... 293

Screech Owl. Photograph from Life ....... 294

Prairie Dog Burrow : Sectional View. After Merriam . . . 306

Field or Meadow Mouse. After Samuels . . . . . .312

Wild Morning-glory Roots. Drawn from Photograph by Lantz . .314

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

XI

Hyacinth Bulbs eaten by Pine Mice. Photograph from Lantz White-footed or Deer Mouse. After Samuels Cornstalk ruined by Brown Rats. Photograph from Lantz Rat Trap used in Burma. After Lantz .... Barrel Trap for Rats. After Lantz ....

Wellhouse Rabbit Trap. After Lantz .... Georgia Gopher. After Biological Survey

315 318 319 3 ! 9 320

Part I Friends And Foes Among The

WEEDS

Cover Design for a Booklet on Weeds

The Booklet on Weeds

Every pupil should make a booklet for each of the important subjects taken up for study. The booklet should be composed of such drawings and language work as is done in connection with the study as well as mounted leaves or other specimens that are readily included in it.

The ordinary plain paper used for drawings serves very well. A good size is six by nine inches. Three holes should be punched near one end for binding with raffia in a cover of thicker paper.

It is very easy to get material for the booklet on weeds. Characteristic leaves, branches, and flowers may be pressed and mounted. Young seedlings also may be preserved.

chaptp:r i

The Weeds of Roadsides and Waste Places

One of the commonest sources of the seeding of cultivated lands is from the weeds that grow in such abundance along roadsides and on neglected ground. A great variety of weedy plants are to be found in these situations, and very often the weeds that first infest tillable fields come from the seeds of these plants. Consequently our study of weeds may well begin with these wayside plants.

When a plant is common and widely distributed, one is pretty certain to find that it is splendidly equipped for the battle of life. The Dandelion is a good example of such a plant. The root is thick and tough and leathery, running straight down into the ground with branches toward the bottom. It is filled with a milky juice and is intensely bitter to the taste. The thickened root enables the plant to store up food one season for the sending up of blossoms the next. The tough and leathery structure enables it to bear trampling by cattle without injury. The bitter taste and milky juice protect it from being eaten by insects or higher animals.

The stem between the root and the leaves is so short that there is practically none at all. This also saves the plant from injury when it is trodden under foot. The leaves are spread out in a rosette ; the lower ones are the longest ; the margins are deeply cut ; they are bitter and filled with a milky juice. The rosette habit, the longer lower leaves, and the incised margins all help the plant to get the most benefit possible from the sunlight; while the bitter taste and milky juice render the leaves unfit for animal food.

The Dandelion flowers are borne on hollow cylindrical stalks filled with a similar bitter juice and covered with a woolly coating. By means of the hollow cylinder the greatest strength is obtained in proportion to the amount of material used, while the woolly coating makes the ascent of ants and other wingless creatures difficult. Several rows of green straplike bracts surround the flower head, forming what the botanists call the involucre. With the help of these bracts the flowers close at night and in rainy weather. This saves the pollen from being washed away by the rain, and probably helps the plant by preventing radiation of heat. A large number of little flowers are crowded together to make up what we call the blossom, thus rendering it so conspicuous that it is freely visited by bees, which carry the pollen from flower to flower and thus bring about cross-pollination.

When the little ovules have been fertilized by pollen, the Dandelion closes up for a time in order to ripen its seeds. Then the flower stem lengthens rapidly, generally carrying the closed head above the surrounding grass. When the seed ripens, the bracts open and the round " blowball " appears, ready for the wind to carry the seedlike akenes away.

It is not strange that a plant with these advantages should become a weed, crowding out others, and claiming all the space and light and moisture wherever a few Dande-

WEEDS OF ROADSIDES AND WASTE PLACES lions become established. To a greater or less extent, practically all the other weeds have similar advantages, and one of the interesting things about the study of each is to find out what these advantages are. This will often point the way to the best means of checking the increase of the plant.

The Dandelion also illustrates another general truth, namely, that the way in which we think of a plant depends upon our point of view. To farmers and to the owners of lawns, the Dandelion is a weedy pest, fit only to be exterminated. To gardeners, it is a profitable crop plant, worthy to be carefully cultivated.

To physicians, it is a storehouse of remedies for human ills. To botanists, it is a species of great interest because of its adaptations to the conditions of plant life. To artists and poets and many other lovers of nature, it is of inestimable value in decorating the landscape and lighting up the fields with its wonderful disks of gold.

Sunflower Family

The Dandelion is a typical example of the great group of plants called the Sunflower family, or Composite. The principal character of this group is the association of many tiny florets in a flower head. A large proportion of our weeds belong to this family, the members of which have many advantages in the struggle for existence.

The various adaptations for the dispersal of the seeds are among the important advantages of the composite plants.

Dandelions

The seedlike fruits of some are furnished with a fringe or tuft of hairs that enables them to becarried long distances by the wind. The dandelions, thistles, goldenrods, and asters are examples of these. Many others are provided with some device for becoming attached to animals. Burdocks, clotburs and Spanish needles are examples of these. Still others have hard nutlike fruits that are able to float upon running water. The tall ragweeds and the common ragweeds are examples of these.

It is easy to understand why the roadsides are generally infested with many of the composite plants whose seedlike fruits or akenes are blown about by the wind. The open road furnishes free passage, and the fences along its borders catch hosts of them as they fly along. So the goldenrods, asters, thistles, and various sorts of wild lettuce are familiar roadside weeds. These are mostly native species that are willing to live and let live, and thus do not entirely overrun the ground as do such imported pests as Prickly Lettuce, a roadside weed which has attracted much attention during recent years. It apparently was first noticed in New England about 1868, and it is now found over a large part of the United States, being especially abundant in the Middle West.

Prickly Lettuce, when mature, is from two to six feet high, with a straight stalk bearing large stemless leaves, the bases of which clasp the main stalk. The flowers are borne in an open panicle on the upper end of the stalk, each blossom being small, yellow, and not very conspicuous. The first flowers appear about midsummer, and others continue to develop until autumn. The leaves and stems have a milky juice which is doubtless a protection from insect attack, while the numerous prickles over the surface are likewise a pro-

WEEDS OF ROADSIDES AND WASTE PLACES

BURDOCK tection from the attack of herbivorous animals. Many thousand seeds are commonly produced by a single plant, and each of these seeds is furnished with a fine pappus, so that it may be carried long distances by the wind.

This is a difficult weed to keep in check. It occupies roadsides and waste grounds very quickly, and its seeds are blown from such situations to cultivated fields. The growing of hoed crops and repeated mowing of patches where the plant is established — thus preventing seeding — are the most advisable measures of protection.

Among the composite plants whose seeds are carried by animals, the Burdock is perhaps the most generally known. Its coarse leaves and spiny seed heads are to be found in many neglected corners. It is a biennial, making a vigorous growth of leaves near the ground during the first season, and storing in the root a large amount of nourishment for the rapid development of the great flower stalk the second season. The tiny florets are crowded together in composite heads, having a pinkish color, and surrounded by a mass of bracts with recurved spiny tips. As the seeds ripen, these spiny burs become brown and easily break away to be carried by any animals that may come in contact with them, scattering the seed as they journey. The plants vary greatly in height according to the richness of the soil in which they grow. They are easily pulled up when quite small, but the second season they must be repeatedly cut off below the soil surface to prevent their blossoming, or else killed by pouring kerosene or some other suitable liquid upon the crown.

Buckwheat and Plantain Families

The most familiar members of the Buckwheat family are the sorrels, docks, and smartweeds. These all have small flowers and the triangular akenes characteristic of the family.

Two species of Dock are abundant and widely distributed weeds. These are the Curled Dock, Sour Dock, or Yellow Dock, and the Bitter Dock or Broad-leaved Dock. The former is easily distinguished by its comparatively narrow curled leaves. The Curled Dock is often used for " greens," but the Broad-leaved Dock is so bitter that it is not used for this purpose. Both of these species are likely to be troublesome in wet places especially along the roadsides and fences, and can be eradicated only by extermination of the roots. These contain so much stored-up nutriment, that if the plants are simply pulled up and left upon the surface of the ground, the seeds often mature ; consequently it is better to burn the plants or at least to cut the stalk away from the roots.

On account of the way in which the Broad-leaved Plantain springs up wherever civilized man appears, the American Indians used to call it White Man's Foot. It is the most abundant representative of the Plantain family, though in fields of grain and forage crops the Narrow-leaved Plantain is more troublesome.

The Broad-leaved Plantain is a sturdy, vigorous plant, well adapted to crowding out others in the struggle for

BROAD-LEAVEDW DOCK

WEEDS OF ROADSIDES AND WASTE PLACES 9

existence. Its roots are large and fibrous, taking firm hold upon the soil ; the main stem is so short as not to appear above the ground ; the broad flat leaves are borne on the ends of long stems, forming a rosette on the soil surface, so that the trampling of animals does not injure them. The leaves are not palatable to higher animals and are eaten by very few insects.

In addition to these advantages the small inconspicuous flowers are borne closely along the sides of the strong and flexible stalks, upon which the seeds rapidly develop. The seeds themselves are provided with a mucilaginous covering, which when wet adheres to the fur of animals so that they are likely to be carried in many directions.

The Plantain is especially likely to take possession of waste corners of the premises, as well as neglected places along roadsides. In lawns it is a vexatious pest, requiring constant attention to keep it out. The use of a sharppointed hoe which will cut off the plant below the surface is an effective remedy. During wet weather, the smaller seedlings may readily be pulled up by hand.

Weeds of Other Families

Three common wayside weeds belong to the Evening Primrose family — Fireweed or Willow-herb, Evening Primrose, and Sundrops. The first named often springs up where a fire has left a lot of ashes for the seeds to sprout in. It is seldom really troublesome in cultivated land, although its winged seeds must be scattered everywhere.

The Evening Primrose is one of the most abundant roadside plants. It is especially likely to take possession of sloping banks and thrives either in open sunlight or in partial shade. Under favorable conditions it grows to a

IO height of several feet and produces in its curious capsules vast numbers of the tiny seeds, which may be blown long distances by violent winds. It may be successfully kept in check by repeated mowings close to the ground.

The little plant called Sundrops seems like the Evening Primrose in miniature. It is often abundant along roadsides, and frequently spreads to adjacent fields, where it is especially troublesome in broadcasted grain and forage crops. Thorough tillage in corn, cabbage, or some other hoed crop is the best way to rid a field of it.

A great variety of other plants are likely to appear as more or less noxious weeds along roadsides. Familiar examples in many of the states are found in Teasel, Elecampane, and Butter-and-Eggs. Each of these may occasionally become troublesome in cultivated fields if left unmolested along the roadsides, but they are comparatively easy to keep in check by attention at the proper season.

Some common roadside weeds have escaped from cultivation. The majority of these are likely to be plants formerly grown in flower gardens, although most of them are now displaced by more attractive flowers. Throughout New England, the pinkish blossoms of Bouncing Bet, or Soapwort, are likely to be seen along the roadside near an abandoned homestead. In early times this plant evidently was a garden favorite and it remains along the roadside, though it seldom becomes really troublesome as a weed.

In a similar way, the curious Cypress Spurge, the Day Lily, and the Live-forever are commonly seen along the

WEEDS OF ROADSIDES AND WASTE PLACES n roadsides, to which they have escaped from gardens. They are usually present in solid patches, which are to be cleared away only by thorough digging of all the roots. As a rule these are not likely to go so far afield or prove so troublesome as certain of the aromatic herbs that were formerly cultivated. Of the latter Yarrow, Tansy, and Caraway are commonly most injurious. The seeds of these may be scattered by the wind over considerable areas. Consequently it is very desirable that the small plants be destroyed as soon as possible.

Even some of the plants in the vegetable garden may at times escape from cultivation and become troublesome. The most notable illustrations of this are found in Horse-radish, Chicory, and Salsify or Vegetable Oyster. The first named reproduces only by vegetative roots ; but Chicory and Salsify produce seeds that scatter in all directions, coming up as weeds in situations favorable to growth.

Not all of the plants, however, which are likely to take possession of neglected bits of ground are to be classed as wholly noxious. For example the Sweet Clovers are among the most abundant occupants of such soil, crowding out other plants and developing a thrifty growth of leaves and blossoms. The blossoms are a valuable source of

Toadflax or Butter-and-Eggs nectar for honey bees, and the roots of these clovers improve the condition of the soil by adding to its store of nitrogen and organic matter. It is doubtful whether in the case of many bits of waste land occupied by these plants it is worth while to attempt to exterminate them. When they grow along alfalfa or other fields in which they are harmful, however, they should of course be destroyed.

1. Make a list of twelve common roadside weeds in your locality.

2. Make drawings of as many of these as you can to use in your Booklet on Weeds. For this booklet print an attractive title-page. Perhaps the one on p. 29 will help you in doing this.

3. Press and mount some of the leaves and flowers of the roadside weeds to bind up in your booklet.

4. Make a list with this heading at the top of the page :

Roadside Weeds I have seen in Neighboring Fields

5. Find out how the seeds of roadside weeds are scattered. Make lists with these headings :

Seeds scattered by the Wind Seeds scattered by Water Seeds scattered by Animals

6. Always watch for new roadside weeds. When one appears, send a specimen to your State Experiment Station to learn its name. Here is the sort of a letter you should send :

, Kansas,

September 21, 191 1.

Experiment Station,

Manhattan, Kansas.

Gentlemen : I am sending you by this mail in a package securely packed a plant I found by the roadside near our school. We do not know its name and we shall be greatly obliged if you will inform me what it is and whether it is likely to become a troublesome weed.

Sincerely yours,

James A. Smith.

CHAPTER II The Weeds of Meadows and Pastures

The weeds of meadows and pastures that have been in sod for many years are likely to be native species that appear to be trying to bring the fields back to the original condition of the untilled land. In a forest region, the land will revert to forest ; in a plains region, it will revert to plains. This is the natural result of neglect on the part of the farmer ; nature is claiming her own.

The ways in which these fields are brought back to the wild condition are well worth studying. Go to such a neglected pasture and notice how shrubs and vines spring up along the sides of fences, where seeds have been blown by winds or left by birds. Notice how these spread outward by means of seeds and rootstocks. See how the untilled, unfertilized sod is "run out," and replaced by mosses or ferns or other weedy growths, and how the seeds of Hardhack, Sweet-fern, and other plants begin to grow in the moss. Then see how these low bushes form a suitable shelter for poplars, birches, and other trees to start, and how these in turn may shade the ground for the early growth of larger trees.

In the plains regions the plants will be different, but the

Milkweed Pods process of encroachment from the neighboring species will be much the same. In pastures where the native grasses form the chief forage, a frequent cause of weed invasion is found in keeping too many animals in the fields. These feed so closely that the grasses are killed out, and other plants not eaten by the stock take their places.

On the other hand, many meadows have problems of their own. This is most likely to result from a mixture of the seeds of some weed with that of the grass, clover, or grain, or it may be through the seeds in the fertilizers from the barn. Sometimes these may be weeds new to the locality, and it is then very important to exterminate them before they scatter seed.

Troublesome Grasses

A number of grasses more or less valuable for forage often prove difficult to eradicate in meadows and pastures where they crowd out more valuable sorts. They are able to displace other plants because they spread by creeping underground rootstocks that take complete possession

of the soil in all directions. One of the worst of these is the notorious Witch-grass, Quack-grass, or Couch-grass. In localities where Johnson-grass has been introduced for forage, this is likely to prove as troublesome.

Wire-grass or Flat-stemmed Blue-grass is another species that is likely to take possession Sprig of Johnson-grass f light sandy soil.

All these troublesome grasses are likely to be introduced, either with barnyard fertilizers or with grass and grain seeds. In permanent pastures some patches may be kept down by salting, thus inducing close feeding by sheep or cattle. In some cases, however, the removal of the turf or cultivation with a hoed crop becomes necessary.

Most meadow and pasture weeds are troublesome, because they reduce the product of the land, but the Squirrel-tail Grass or Tickle-grass is much worse than these, because it produces festering sores in the mouths of cattle. Consequently it not only reduces the grass and hay crop, but it renders them of less value for feeding. This is a widely distributed annual, easily recognized by its glistening, whitish heads of barbed awns, each awn an inch or two in length. It is especially troublesome in Western meadows and alfalfa fields, being considered in many regions the most pestiferous weed. The seeds are carried by the wind, though fortunately they are not distributed in grass seed. Rotation with an annual crop, or the pulling and burning of the plants before the heads appear are the only effective remedies, and they necessitate community action for the best results. If one farmer keeps his meadows free and his neighbor does not, there is little benefit to either.