Conversations on English grammar : explaining the principles and rules of the language : illustrated by appropriate exercises : abridged and adapted to the use of schools

Front matter

i:

II rpNVJERSATIONS

ON

Contents

CONVERSATION

Page

I. Introduction. Of Letters, I

Preface

In presenting this abridgment of Conversations o^ i^NGLisH Grammar to the public, the auihoi* deems it prosper to give an outline of his arrangement of the subject; to endeavour to support the distinctions which he has advanced respecting ihe subjunctive mood, by such reasoning, and such authority, as may justify his positions; to make a few remarks on the facilities which it offers to teachers as well as to learners; and to suggest the advantages which may be expected to result from this method of instruction

There is perhaps no elementary study in which childrea

find more difficulty than in that of English Grammar; nor

. one which they generally pursue vvith less interest. This,

f it is presumed, arises, not so much from any obscurities

peculiar to this subject, as from the manner in which it is

usually presented to the youthful mind.

A natural and easy gradation in introducing and connecting the different parts of speech, and in explaining the inflections and properties peculiar to each ; presenting, progressively, that oTily which the learner is prepared to understand ; and illustrating the rules and principles by ex^ amples and practical exercises, in a course of familiar Conversations; seemed to the author, to be the method best adapted lo remove this difficulty, and to excite attention and curiosity in those who are endeavouring to acquire a knowledge of the English Grammar.

The first two Conversauptis, therefore, introduce the subject; treat of the number and division of letters, and the rules of orthography, as exemplified in the different modifications of words.

The third Conversation commences with Etymology and Syntax, and explains the Noun, (the only part of speech, except the Interjection, which can be explained ^vithout a reference to some other,) with its persons, numbers, genders, and the nominative case, together with tb? active verb, agreeing with its nominative.

xii "^"*TH|igg^cn

The fourth explains the two other cases of nouns, with their proper government, and the distinctions of the tran^ sitive and intransitive verbs.

In Ihe fifth, the Articles are introduced; and the pupil is now prepared to understand the distinctions, and appropriate uses of this part of speech.

The sixth introduces the Adjective; remarks on its degrees of comparison, illustrates its use, and office in a sentence, and offers to the learner all the information respect-' ing this part of speechr, necessary to enable him to pars« it, and understand its proper application.

The Participle is selected as the subject of the next Conversation; but, as the /2resc?z^ participle only, can be completely comprehended at this point of the learner's progress, the others are treated separately, and are not combined in the parsing exercises contained in this Conversation, but reserved for their proper place, which will be found after the Indicative mood and its six tenses have been presented ; in explaining which, will necessarily occur the opportunity of rendering the distinctive characters of the perfect, and compound perfect participles, entirely intelligible.

The Adverb, which always has its grammatical connexions with a verb, adjective, participle, or with another adveTb, is explained in the eighth.

In the ninth, the pronouns are given and the personal and adjective pronouns particularly explained.

The tenth continues the explanation of the Pronouns, in their respective classes, and treats particularly of the relative and interrogative kinds.

Prepositions are introduced in the eleventh; and. the twelfth comprises the Conjunctions and Interjections, and prepares the learner for the analysis of cifrtipound sentences. #

In these twelve Conversations, the pupil is made acquainted with all the parts of speech; their different offices, properties, connexions and dependencies; except the moods and tenses of verbs; and by means of the exercises in parsing, which are annexed to each Conversation, he is enabled, with the e;xception just mentioned, to parse them^with accuracy and despatch. Additional remarks are also subjoined, which each Conversation prepares the learner to read with intelligence and pleasure; becaiise he can understand them. A series of questions refen ing to the preceding Conversation, immediately follows the re-

PREFACE. XUl

marks; to answer these the learner is compelled to study with attention and to condense the subject-matter, in order to give his own explanations, instead of reciting a confused multitude of words, without annexing corresponding ideas to what he repeats.

The thirteenth and fourteenth Conversations are occupied in explaining several connexions and rules, which could not have been presented before; and a few pages are taken up on- the subject of derivation.

The fifteenth Conversation commences with an explanation of the moods and tenses of the verbs; explains the general distinctions of each to a limited extent, and dwells particularly on the indicative, as a means of readily comprehending the others.

The sixteenth gives an exposition of the subjunctive mood; and the seventeenth exhibits with appropriate explanations and rules, the potential, infinitive, and imperative moods.

The eighteenth Conversation gives a more extended definition of the verb than was given in the former Conversations ; and explains at large the active, passive, and neuter verbs. At this stage of advancement, there is little difficulty in the pupil's understanding the passive and neuter verbs; and the moods and tenses, as applicable to these, are already understood.

Conversation nineteenth treats of the auxiliary verbs, and contains all the remarks on the proper use of the different tenses, that are thought to be necessary. These remarks on the tenses are necessarily more difficult to be understood, by a learner, than any others relating to the subject of Grammar; these, therefore, as the reflecting reader must perceive, could not have been introduced sooner, witiiout an obvious departure from the plan which the author has adopted.

The twentieth Conversation explains the principles, and the application of the XXI. XXII. and XXlII. rules, which, with those before given, will be found sufficient for the parsing of any regular construction in the English language.

The twenty -first and last Conversation, contains a few critical and general remarks, and concludes with exlrcises in parsing. ^

After this, the form of Conversation is dropped, and the remaining instructions are divided into Sections, in which ail the rules are recapitulated, accompanied with general

tB

XIV PREFACK

remarks on the structure of the language ; and appcndec to each Section, are appropriate exercises in false syntax, which will serve also as a continued series of exercises in parsing.

These exercises have been taken from Mr. Hurray's book of exercises, which afforded as good a collection as could be found; and the notes which accompany them, with such alterations only as were necessary, have been copied from Murray's Grammar ; and, throughout the work, whatever has been found convenient and unexceptionable, has been taken from this excellent writer.

The author now invites the attention of the critical reader to a few remarks respecting the subjunctive mood, as it is exhibited in this work. Though he has ventured to deviate from the beaten path of his predecessors, in the conjugation of the verb in this mood, yet he thinks, that it is in perfect accordance, not only with the practice of the best writers, but also in strict conformity to the definition of this mood, as given by the most distinguished grammarians. Mr. Lindley Murray, in his remarks on this mood, (page 210, oct. cd.) says-— " Some grammarians think it extends only to what is called the present tense of verbs generally, under the circumstances of contingency and futurity ; and to the imperfect tense of the verb to bey when it denotes contingency, &c.: because in these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of variation ; and they suppose that it is variation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods. It is the opinion of other grammarians, (in which opinion, says he, we concur,) that, besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three past, and the two future tenses, are in the subjunctive mood, when they denote contingency or uncertainty, though they have not any change of termination; and that, when contingency is not signified, the verb, through all these five tenses, belongs to the indicative mood, whatever conjunction may attend it. They think, that the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, have no reference to change of termination^ but that they refer merely to the manner of the beings action^ or fiassion^ signified by the -verb ; and that the subjunctive mood may as /irofierly exist without a variatimt of the verby as the infinitive mood, which has no terminations different from those of the indicative."

In this opinion the author of this treatise also concurs. But, if " the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, have no reference to change of termination," how can

PKEJ'ACE. XV

Mr. Murra}', aiMbther grammarians, with whbm he " concurs in this opinion," say, that, in the phrase, " If he studies," the verb may not be considered as in the subjunctive mood, with as much propriety, as in the phrase, " If he study ?" Or with what reason or consistency can they say, "If thou remainedst," "If he remained,'* are subjunctive; but, " If thou wast," " If he was," cannot be subjunctive, but that they are always indicative ?

In presenting the difierent opinions of grammarians concerning this mood, Mr. Murray further observes, in a note, page 211 : " Wc may add a Fourth opinion; which appears to possess, at least, much plausibility. This opinion admits the arrangement we have given, with one variation, namely, that of assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, two forms: 1st, that which simply denotes contingency: as, "If he desires \X^ I will perform the operation;" that is, " if he nonv desires it ;" 2dly, that which denotes both contingency and futurity : as, " If he desire it, I will perform the operation;" that is, " If he should hereafter desire it." "This last theory of the subjunctive mood, claims the merit of rendering^the whole system of the moods consistent and regular; of being more conformable than any other, to the definition of the subjunctive; and of not referring to the indicative mood, forms of expression, which ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhaps this theory will bear a strict examination." The writer of this book believes it will; and this is the manner in which he has exhibited the present tense of the subjunctive mood. But he does not think, with Mr. Murray, that this alone will render "the whole system of the moods consistent and regular." But that, to do this, two forms must also be given to the imperfect tense of the neuter verb be^ dfid passive verbs, as they may be seen exhibited and explained in the following work,^Conversation XVIII. page 126; and Section XX. page 263.'

The method adopted in this work, offers peculiar facilities to the teacher as well as to the learner. The former will here find, that the familiar style of explanatiofi, avoid* ing uncommon words, and furnishing very easy examples, will save him the necessity of much verbal comment; will diminish his labour, by preventing the necessity of reiterated definition; and that it will also prevent much weariness, and many trials of patience on his part, by the clear ideas it will communicate to his scholars.

The arrangement of the parsing lessons offers an accommodation to the teacher, of which grammars in common use are wholly destitute; and in defect of which, many teachers entirely defer the applic'ation of principles, tiH the whole grammar has been repeatedly committed to memory, withoui any obvious design or utility, in the perception of the learner. But, in this book, he will be under no necessity to exercise his pupil, for the first time, in a maze of intricate constructions. The words and phrases, necessary to exemplify every principle progressively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illusUation of the principles to which they are referred; without introducing, in examples designed to illustrate a single grammatical relation, long and complicated phrases, which serve only to involve the relation designed to be shown, in such a connexion, that the unpractised learner is unable to discern, in the various dissimilar members of the sentence, which of them illustrates the principle in question. And besides lessening the fatigues of the teacher, this ariangen»ent, and these lessons^ give a positive efficacy to his instructions, and conciliate the mind of the pupil to a pursuit in which his efforts are encouraged by easiness, and rewarded by success.

It is sometimes apprehended, that too many flowers may be spread in the path of the learner; that toO many helps may enfeeble theenergy of his mind ; that too short a course may be pointed out to the attainment of knowledge. But no man, who retraces the steps of his ascent to any eminence, either humble or proud, which he may have gained, can fail to perceive, that some assistances quickened, and some obstacles retarded his progress; that some rational volume, or some intelligent mind, cherished his curiosity and aided hjs diligence; that there may be a direct as well as a circuitous route; and, that he might be urged on in darkness, or guided in light. The author has observed too many students struggling onward in doubt, and in dread ; too many, in revolt and despair, not to feel some commiseration for the youthful sufferers; not to inquire why they suffered, and how they might be relieved; not to question whether this reluctance and rebellion of the will, may not be " the struggle of the understanding, starting from that to which it is not by nature adapted, and travelling in search of something on which it may fix with greater satisfaction."* The result of his experience and

* Dr. Johnson.

PHEFACE: XVli observation, in respect to the proper mode of cultivating the human mind, in one depariment of knowledge, is here laid before the public. The writer's views have not been confined to a mere system of grammar: this is only an instrument of the mind. The fitness of the mind to the insirument; the manner in which the theory and the practice might be made the intelligible objects of reason; have long employed his attention ; and where his arrangement has deviated from the order which grammarians commonly observe, it has been dictated by reasoning, and much reflection on the subject, and in conformity to the nature of mental acquisitions. He has endeavoured always to bear in mind the maxim expressed on the face of this book : that, " There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, than by means of something already known." He does not, therefore, commence this subject with the first definition in the common grammar, that, an Article is a word prejixed to a substantive,, Sec. before any 9 idea of a substantive has been conveyed to the learner's ^

mind; and soon after inform him, that an " Objective case |j

generally follonvs a verb active or a preposition^''' before the student has any conception of either. This inverted order has a pernicious tendency. It disheartens and stupifies. But he trusts that, in the progress of instruction, he has never forgotten the fitness of his subject, to the state of the learner's mind; and he has endeavoured to make the labour of study not only profitable, but pleasant; by supplying the young student " with easy knowledge, and obviating that despondence which quickly prevails, when nothing appears but a succession of difficulties, and one labour only ceases that another may be imposed." New- York, May, 182 1 .

BiRECTIONS TO TEACHERS,

As one important object, proposed in this work, is, by the peculiar arrangement of the subject-matter, entirely to abolish, wherever it is used, the practice of stultifying children^ by compelling them to recite, in endless repetition, " vv^ords, words, words," without annexing idea fi ; it may not be deemed, either impertinent or improper, to present, on the face of the book, some directions to those who^may happen to use it. The Author believes it will be found most advantageous for learners in general, to begin at the THIRD CONVERSATION, and return to the two preceding, on Ottftography, after those on Etymology and Syntax are well understood.

Begin, then, at the third Conversation^ and explain to the class, or individual, in a familiar lecture, or conversation, the noun, with its two persons, its numbers, its genders, and the nominative case as an actory illustrating the remarks by familiar examples, and requiring the pupils also to give examples, illustrative of what has been explained ; then explain the active verb, and its agreement with the actor, or nominative, and give Rule I: "A verb must agree," Sec. The learners may then be exercised, a few moments, in parsing such sentences as these : Boys play; Girls sing ; Men labour ; Man labours ; Rain falls, &c. ; the teacher calling their attention to the distinctive form of the verb, as singular or plural. By spending twenty or thirty minutes in this manner with a class of learners, the teacher may prepare them to read the Conversation, which must be given for the next day's lesson, with intelligence and with pleasure; and they will find no difficulty in preparing themselves to parse accurately the exercises in the Conversation, and answer correctly the questions annexed. When the learners are called, the next day, their business will not be, to recite a page, without acquiring one idea^ but lo fiarse the exercises, and answer the questions. The subject-matter of the fourth Conversation, should be explained in a similar manner, before the pupils begin to read it; they will then proceed in this as in the other. After

BIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. XIX

these two are well understood, the pupils will, doubtless, fee able to proceed with the other Conversations, and understand them, without previous verbal comment.

%* If any one should choose to begin at the Jirst Conversation, there can be no great objection; but what relates to the sounds of the letters, in the entire work^ix would be well to omit, or to attend to but fiartially^ till the pupils thoroughly understand Etymology and Syntax. •<

CONVERSATIONS

ON

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

CONVERSATION I

OF LETTERS.

TUTOR.'—GEORGE.— CAROLIJ^E.

Tutor. I HAVE frequently told you, that, as soon as you could read fluently, and understand what you read, I would instruct you in ihx3 principles of Grammar. I now find that you read your books for the purpose of understanding them, and that you do not, as many children do, merely pronounce the words^ without any regard to the sense.

Caroline. You have so often cautioned us, against the practice of reading without trying to comprehend the sense of every sentence, that I now find no pleasure in reading, unless I thoroughly understand the meaning of what 1 read.

Tutor. I believe so, Caroline, and I have no doubt, that your brother George can say the same ; and therefore I shall begin to instruct you in English Grammar, this morning. And now, George, what do you think that Grammar is about.

George. I think it is about words, or language ; and, that it will teacli us to speak and write what we mean, in such a manner, that others may clearly understand us; and, that it will enable us to avoid putting words together so that a sentence will convey two or three different meanings, when it ought to convey but one.

Tutor. Very w^ell. Grammar treats of language, and, if you understand it well, it will teach you to write and speak it correctly. Grammar may be divided into two sorts, Universal^dJid Particular. Universal Grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages.

A

2 (JklHOGRAPHY.

Particular Grammar applies those general principles to a particular language, modifying them according to the genius of that language, and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. The practice of the best speakers and writers of any language, then, is thestandard of the grammarof that language. But before I say more concerning language^ I must know whether you can give the definition of an idea.

George. An idea is whatever a person has in his mind, when he thinks.

Tutor. Very well. And now, Caroline, do you remember the definition of language ?

Caroline. Language is the expression of our ideas and their relations, by certain articulate sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas and relations.

Tutor. That is right. We must observe now what we have under consideration, viz. first, ^/zm^s; secondly, the images of those things, in the mind, when we think of them, which are called ideas ; and thirdly, language^ or articulate sounds, used to express, or to convey, to other minds, those ideas which we have in our own. These articulate sounds we call words^ which are used by common consent, as the signs of our ideas and their relations. So you will perceive, that, unless these words are used in such manner and order, as will represent truly the order and relation of the ideas in our own minds, another person will not be able to comprehend our meaning.

George. I perceive it very clearly. You say that words are used by common consent.

Tutor. That means, that all the people who speak the same language, consent to call things by the same names ; or to express the same ideas by the same signs.

Caroline. I understand it ; and perceive the necessity of it ; for, if the fact were otherwise, we could not comprehend each other; there would be as many different languages as there are persons. I wish you to say more, if you please, respecting those words that are the signs of the relations of ideas. I think I understand how a word is the sign of an idea, for when I think about this book which you gave me, the word book is the sign of what I think of, but I do not precisely comprehend how words are the signs oi thQ relations of our ideas.

Tutor. When I say that you hold the book in your hand; what word expresses the relation between the book and your hand ?

ORTHOGRAPHIF. 3

Caroline. It is in. I see now, that the word in is not f the sign of a thing th^t I think of, but the sign of a relation existing between the book and the hand, which are twp things that I can think of; so then, a word that denotes a relation between things, must be the sign of the relation between the ideas of those things.

Tutor. Yes ; and you will, by a little reflection, perceive the different uses of words ; that some are used to express ideas or images of things ; some to express ideas of motion ; and others to express ideas of relations merely. As, in the phrase, *' The son of David studies^'* you may readily perceive, that of shows the relationship existing between the two persons ; for if we were to leave it out of the sentence, and say, " The son, David" &c, the phrase would indicate, that the two Avords referred to one, and the same person; so you may as readily perceive, that of is used to express the relation of the ideas in your mind, and the signs of those ideas, when put on paper, which are son and David.

George. I think we have a clear notion of what has been said ; and that we perceive the importance of preserving the purity and uniformity of each particular language ; and that, in each, there should be a common set of signs which may be known, by all who speak that lan° guage, as the representatives of particular ideas, and definite relations.

Caroline. And this, I suppose, is accomplished by diffusing a knowledge of Grammar.

Tutor. Undoubtedly ; for Grammar treats,

Firsty of articulate sounds, which are the sounds of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech, and of the forms and sounds of letters, wlucj^ are the representatives of those articulate sounds; of the combination of letters into syllables, and of syllables into words ;

Secondly, of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivations ;

Thirdly, of the just arrangement of words in the formation of a sentence ; and

Fourthly, of the proper pronunciation and poetical construction of sentences. These four parts of Grammar are called,

1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, and

2. Etymology, 4. Prosdj^y- I will now proceed with these in thew" order.

4 OR'lHOGRAPHt

ORTHOGRAPHY

OF THE LETTERS.

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters^ and the just method of spelling words.

A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word.

The letters of the English language, called the English Alphabet, are twenty-six in number.

These letters are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, the elements of the language. An articulate sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech.

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants.

A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly uttered by itself : as, a, e, o; which are formed without the help of anj^ other sound.

A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel : as, by dy fy I ; which require vowels to express them fully.

The vowels are, c, e, z, o, w, and sometimes w and y.

rrand y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; but in every other situation they are vowels.

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel. They are 6,/?, ^, dy ^, and c and g hard.

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are,/", /, tw, tz, r, ly, s, z, ir, and c and g soft.

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, /, ;«, ?t, r, are also distinguished by the name of liquidsy from their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing as it were into their sounds. ^ *

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice : as, ea in beat, ou in sound.

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner : as, eau in beau, ieiu in view.

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce.

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded : as, ea in eagle, oa in boat.

QUESTIONS.

What do you understand by the word idea ? What is an articulate sound ?

ORTHOORAPHIF.* 5

What is language?

What is Grammar ?

How may Grammar be divided ?

What does Universal Grammar explain ?

What does Particular Grammar teach ?

What does English Grammar teach ?

What is the standard of English Grammar, by which we must be governed ?

Into how many parts is English Grammar divided ?

What are they called ?

Of what does each treat ?

What are letters?

How many are there in the English language ?

How are letters divided ?

What is a vowel ?

What letters are vowels ?

What is a consonant ?

When are iv and y consonants ?

And when vowels ?

How are consonants divided ?

What is a mute?

What is a semi-vowel ?

Which four of the semi-vowels are called liquids?

What is a diphthong ?

What is a triphthong ?

What is a firofier diphthong ?

What is an imfirofier diphthong ?

CONVERSATION II.

OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS.

Tutor. You answered the questions annexed to the first conversation so readily, that I perceive you are veryattentive, and that you remember what I tell you. I shall> by-and-by, be able to make the subject more interesting to you.

Caroline. We begin already to be interested in it, for we know how necessary it is, that we should understand it ; and we believe that you will explain it to us in such a manner, that it will not be very dry.

Tutor. You will probably find Orthografihy the least interesting part of Grammar. In acquiring a knowledge

a2

^ OaXHOtSRAPHY

of this, you must be patient and perform the labour your selves. But when you come to Etymology and Syntax, more illustration will be necessary, and I shall be able to render you more assistance, than I can at present.

George. , We know that, in order to understand any art or science \Vell, its first principles must be clearly comprehended ; and, that it then becomes easy. I Caroline. You showed us, the other day, some remarks

I on this subject, made by Quinctilian, which I remember.

*' Let no person," says be, " despise, as inconsiderable, the elements of grammar, because it may seem to them a matter of small consequence, to show the distinction between vowels and consonants, and to divide the latter into liquids and mutes.* But they who penetrate into the innermost parts of this temple of science, will there discover such refinement and subtility of matter, as are not only proper to sharpen the understandings of young persons, but sufficient to give exercise for the most profound knbwledge and erudition."

Tutor. I shall now proceed with syllables and Avords.

OF SYLLABLES.

A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word : as a, an, ant.

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters.