Greene's analysis. A treatise on the structure of the English language; or, The analysis and classification of sentences and their component parts with illustrations and exercises, adapted to the use of schools

Front matter

Class.

Book.

SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT

Preface

The following treatise contains, as its title indicates, a system for analyzing sentences. In the preparation of the work, it has been the aim of the author, first, to determine the number and the nature of the elements which can enter into the structure of a sentence, and, secondly, to ascertain their various forms and conditions. Notwithstanding the almost infinite variety of sentences with which the language abounds, it is worthy of remark that the number of different elements in any sentence can never exceed five. It is equally remarkable that the offices which these elements perform are few and uniform, although they may assume an endless variety of forms.

As to the forms of the elements, it would seem, at first, a hopeless task to attempt a classification of them ; yet they are found to differ essentially from each other only in three respects. An element may be a word joined to another without a connective, or it may be a word joined by means of a preposition, — both together forming a phrase ; or it may be a subordinate proposition, joined by a connective, and constituting a clause. Any element may also be subject to three different states or conditions. It may be simple, that is, unmodified or uncompounded ; it may be complex , that is, modified by another simple element ; or it may be compound, that is, it may consist of two or more simple elements, which in no way modify each other. The same distinction prevails in entire sentences. A sentence containing but one proposition is simple ; a sentence containing two propositions, one of which modifies the other, is complex ; a sentence containing two propositions which in no way modify each other, is compound.

Some of the numerous advantages arising from studying grammar, or rather language, through the structure of sentences, are the following : — (1.) As a sentence is the expression of a thought, and as the elements of a sentence are expressions for the elements of thought, the pupil who is taught to separate a sentence into its elements, is learning to analyze thought, and consequently to think. (2.) The relations between different forms of thought and appropriate forms of expression, are seen most clearly by means of analysis and construction. (3.) A large proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words, but combinations or groups of words. These groups perform the office of the substantive, the adjective, or the adverb, and, in some one of

4 PREFACE.

these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. The pupil wtio learns to determine the elements of a sentence, must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before he separates them into the single words which compose them. This advantage is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing. (4.) But the grand advantage to be gained from this method may be seen in the facility which it affords the learner for constructing the language. If English Grammar teaches " the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly," — the only successful method of obtaining a knowledge of that art is, by means of construction and analysis. This system cannot be pursued with even tolerable success, without requiring the pupil to construct repeatedly the various forms of sentences and elements of sentences. Such exercises afford the teacher an opportunity of correcting all errors in orthography, punctuation, construction, and the use of words.

It may be further added, that this system is only applying to the English what, in our higher seminaries, is applied to the classic languages. And as these seminaries are to be supplied mainly from our common schools, a demand is created for a more philosophical plan of teaching the English language.

The parts of this work are so classified and arranged that the learner commences with the simplest forms, and advances by a natural and easy gradation to the most difficult. A brief system of etymology is introduced in connection with the analysis ; but, that it may not interrupt the progress of the work, it is arranged in an Appendix, and is referred to as the learner advances. The parts in large type are to be studied, while those in small type are intended for the teacher and the more advanced pupil. It may be well, on going through the work for the first time, to omit some portions of the larger type. It is the author s intention, as soon as practicable, to prepare an abridgment of the work, in which the most important principles only will be discussed, and accompanied with such exercises as will adapt the work to a younger class of pupils.

In the preparation of this treatise, the author acknowledges his indebtedness to the excellent Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard, and especially to that of Dr. Kiihner, translated from the German by Professor J. T. Champiin, of Waterville College ; also to the invaluable Greek Grammars of Professor A. Crosby and of Dr. Kiihner: those of Dr. Kiihner were translated, the larger by Professor B. B. Edwards and S. H. Taylor, of Andover, the smaller by S. H. Taylor, principal of Phillips Academy. Much aid has been derived from the work of George Crane, and from that of De Saey, on General Grammar.

Cherishing the hope that this work may contribute, in some small degree, to improve the methods of teaching the English language, the author submits it to the judgment of a candid public.

S. S. GREENE

Boston, 1847,

Chapter 1. Elements Of The First Class

PAGE

Sect. I. Preliminary Remarks and Definitions, 10

II. The Proposition. — Principal Elements, • 15

III. Modifications of the Subject, 20

1. Number of the Subject, 21

2. Gender of the Subject, 22

3. Person of the Subject, 24

4. Case of the Subject, 26

IV. Modifications of the Predicate, • 28

1. Modifications of the Predicate-Nominative, 28

2. Modifications of the Predicate-Adjective, 30

3. Modifications of the Verb, 33

Number and Person of the Verb, . . . 34

Mode of the Yerb, 35

Tense of the Verb, 39

V. Adjective Element, 47

1. Adjective "Words, 49

2. Nouns or Pronouns,.... 53

VI. The Objective Element, 56

1. Single Object, 58

2. Double Object, 59

VII. The Adverbial Element, 62

1. Adverbs denoting Place, 63

2. Adverbs denoting Time, • 63

3. Adverbs of Cause or Source, 63

4. Adverbs denoting Manner, 64

Comparison of Adverbs, 65

VIII. Interjections and the Case Independent, 68

IX. Complex Elements, 69

X. Compound Elements, - 73

XI. Several Elements of the same Name. — Recapitulation, . 80

O CONTENTS.

Chapter II. Elements Of The Second Class. — Phrases

PAGE.

Sect. I. Nature of Elements of Second Class, 84

1. Component Parts of the Phrase, 85

2. The Phrase considered as a Whole, 87

II. The Phrase used as a Principal Element, *...... 88

1. The Subject, 88

2. The Predicate, 92

III. The Phrase used as the Adjective Element, 95

IV. The Phrase used as the Objective Element, 98

1. Single Object, 98

2. Double Object, 99

V. The Phrase used as the Adverbial Element, 102

1. Phrases denoting Place, 103

2. Phrases denoting Time, 105

3. Phrases denoting Cause or Source, 107

4. Phrases denoting Manner, 107

VI. Complex Elements, • Ill

VII. Compound Elements, • 117

VIII. Several Elements of the same Name, . .... 119

IX. Interrogative Sentences, • 121

1. Direct Interrogative Sentences, 122

2. Indirect Interrogative Sentences, 123

Chapter III. Elements Of The Third Class. — Subordinate Clauses

Sect. I. Nature of Elements of the Third Class, • 127

1. Component Parts of the Subordinate Clause, .... 128

2. The Clause considered as a "Whole, 128

3. Uses of the Substantive Clause, 129

II. Subordinate Clauses used as Principal Elements, 130

1. The Substantive Clause used as Subject, 131

2. The Predicate, 134

III. Subordinate Clauses used as the Adjective Element, ... 135

1. Adjective Clauses,. 135

2. Substantive Clauses, .., 138

CONTENTS. 7

PAGE.

Sect. IV. Subordinate Clauses used as the Objective Element,.. 141

1. Single Object, 141

Direct and Indirect Quotation, 142

2. Double Object, 143

V. Subordinate Clauses used as the Adverbial Element, . 147

1. Clauses denoting Place, 148

2. Clauses denoting Time, 149

3. Clauses denoting Causal Relations, 151

Clauses which denote a Cause or Reason,. 152

Conditional Clauses, 154

Final Clauses, 156

Adversative Clauses, 158

4. Adverbial Clauses denoting Manner, 160

VI. Complex Elements containing Clauses, 162

VII. Compound Elements of the Third Class, 164

VIII. Several Elements of the same Name, 166

IX. Abridged Propositions, 167

Chapter IV. Coordinate Clauses

Sect. I. Copulative Coordinate Clauses, 177

II. Adversative Coordinate Clauses, 180

III. Alternative Coordinate Clauses, 181

IV. Recapitulation, 183

Chapter V. Various Properties Of Sentences

Sect. I. Sentences considered as a "Whole, 186

II. Arrangement of the Elements, 189

1. Arrangement of the Principal Elements, ........ 189

2. Arrangement of the Adjective Element, 191

3. Arrangement of the Objective and Adverbial

Elements, 191

III. Peculiarities of Structure, 195

1. Peculiarities in the Structure of Sentences, 195

2. Peculiarities in the use of the Parts of a Sen-

tence, 197

IV. Equivalents , 200

CONTENTS.

Appendix

ORTHOGRAPHY.

PAGE.

Lesson I. Letters, . . , . , 203

II. Syllables and "Words, .. 205

ETYMOLOGY.

Lesson I. Parts of Speech, 206

II. Classes of the Noun and Pronoun, 207

III. Number of the Noun and Pronoun, 209

IV. Gender of the Noun and Pronoun, 210

V. Person of the Noun and Pronoun, 211

VI. Case of the Noun and Pronoun, 212

VII. Adjective Words, 214

VIII. Classes of Verbs, 217

IX. Number, Person, and Voice of the Verb, 223

X. Mode of the Verb, 224

XI. Tense of the Verb, 2.

XII. Adverbs, 24l

XIII. Prepositions, 241

XIV. Interrogatives, 242

XV. Connectives, 242

SYNTAX.

Rules for The Subject, 244

" The Predicate, 244

" The Adjective Element, 244

" The Objective Element, 244

" The Adverbial Element, 245

" Interjections and the Case Independent, 246

" Connectives, 246

PROSODY, 248

PUNCTUATION. 252

ANALYSIS OE SENTENCES.

1. Language is the medium through which we communicate our thoughts.

2. Discourse is a continued series of thoughts, each expressed by an assemblage of words called a sentence.

3. A series of sentences relating to the same subject, or the same branch of the subject, is called a paragraph.

4. A sentence may be considered as a whole, or m reference to its component parts.

5. The component parts of a sentence are the words, phrases, and clauses which enter into its structure.

6. A sentence, considered as a whole, either declares something, asks a question, expresses a command, or contains an exclamation.

The following are examples of each kind of sentence : — Declarative. "There are certain social principles in human nature, from which we may draw the most solid conclusions with respect to the conduct of individuals and communities." — Interrogative. " When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind, and impressed the deepest sentiment of fear on the hearts of her enemies ? " — Imperative. " Shut now the volume of history, and tell me, on any principle of human probability, what shall be the fate of this handful of adventurers." — Exclamatory. " How different would have been our lot this day, both as men and women, had the Revolution failed of success ! "

7. The component parts of a sentence are called its elements.

8. A sentence may contain five distinct elements. Of these, two are indispensable to its formation, and are hence called principal elements. The other three are dependent on these, and are hence

Called SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS.

9. Each of these five elements may take three distinct forms, called the first, second, and third classes of the elements.

Chapter I

(simple sentences.) ELEMENTS OF THE FIRST CLASS. — WORDS.

Section I. Preliminary Remarks And Definitions

10. An element of the first class is a single word used as a constituent part of a sentence.

11. A word is the sign of an idea.

(a.) An idea is a mental picture or conception of an object, either material or immaterial, and may be represented singly ; as, tree, river, horse; or as associated with some other idea ; as, tall tree, deep river, wild horse. In the first examples, tree, river, horse, represent single ideas of the objects which they name ; but in the second, the ideas represented by tall, deep, and wild, are associated with them.

(b.) Some words are used merely as signs of the relation of ideas (see 14, b.) ) as, " Kingdom of Great Britain."

12. Connected ideas require a corresponding connection of the words which represent them ; as, faithful man, house of representatives.

The words faithful and man are connected so as to show a relation between the two ideas which they represent. So also are house and representatives.

13. In connecting words, we must attend both to the mode and the nature of their union.

14. The Mode of Union. Words may be united in two ways : —

(a.) By joining them immediately, that is, without a connective; — first, without change of form ; as, good food, summer residence, very quickly ; — second, with the form of one or both the united words changed; as, " Arabia-n horses;" "Abraham-'s tent ; " " Thou sit-test ; " —

(&.) By using a connective to denote the relation between them ; as, " Horses from Arabia ; " " The tent of Abraham ; " " Thou art sitting."

This mode of union is sometimes called mediate.

15. The Nature of the Union. We naturally distinguish objects by means of some of their properties ; as, their color, — black, white, red, blue ;

their form, — long, short, wide, deep ; their actions. — running, flying, swimming, crawling ; their genus or species, — animal, bird, fish, serpent. These properties are called attributes.

16. An attribute may be united to its object, — (a.) By assuming a union, or by joining it without

an assertion ; as, blue slcy, rough sea, poisonous reptiles ; —

(6.) By affirming a union, or by joining it with an assertion ; as, " The sky is blue ; JJ " The sea is rough ; " " Reptiles are poisonous."

In either case, the attribute is united to the object. In the former, the fact that the property belongs to the object is only implied, conceded, or taken for granted; whereas, in the latter, the same is affirmed, declared, or predicated. In the first case, the attribute is joined immediately to its object; in the second, it is joined to it, and asserted of it, by a peculiar connective called the copula.

17. The copula is some modification (is, are, was, &c.) of the verb to be. Its office is, to assert an attribute of the thing to which it belongs.

18. The distinction between assuming and predicating an attribute, is of great importance in the construction of language ; and, that the learner may become familiar with it at the outset, let him attend to the following exercise : —

Tell which of the following expressions contain an assumed, and which a predicated property : —

Sweet apples. Running water. Ice is melting. Shining gold. George is well. Fading flowers. Stars are shining. Snow is falling. Sour grapes. The wind is blowing. Fire is burning. John is a carpenter. Singing birds. Open doors. Barren fields. Hissing serpents. A long journey. Hope is deferred.

Change each of the above expressions, by predicating the assumed, and assuming the predicated properties.

Model.* "Apples are sweet ; " " Water is running ; n " Melting ice."

Mention three or more properties of each of the following objects : —

Gold, horses, books, iron, ocean, whales, edifice, peaches, dogs, man, king, moon, water, ink, oil, lamp, table, money, pens.

Unite them first as assumed and then as predicated properties.

Model. Heavy gold ; precious gold ; yellow gold ; porous gold.

Model. Gold is heavy ; gold is precious ; gold is yel- - low ; gold is porous.

19. When an attribute is predicated of an object, the united ideas constitute a thought, and the form of expression is called a sentence, (from the Latin word sententia, a thought.) Hence,

20. A sentence is a thought expressed in words.

21. When an attribute is assumed of an object, no thought is expressed, but simply two ideas are associated. (11, a.)

* These exercises may be written or recited orally. It is recommended that the practice of writing lessons should be adopted as a general rule.

22. In the formation of a sentence, there must, therefore, be two parts, — that to which the attribute belongs, and the attribute itself; and the latter must be affirmed of the former.

23. That to which the attribute belongs is called the subject ; and the attribute itself, with the word which connects (17) it to the subject, is called the predicate.

EXAMPLES.

Subject.

Predicate.

Birds are singing.

Bees are industrious.

George is coming.

Victoria is queen.

24. It very often happens that the attribute and copula are united in one word.

EXAMPLES.

Subject.

Predicate.

Birds sing, (are singing.)

George comes.

Winds blow.

Stars shine.

Note. When the predicate contains the copula and the attribute in one word, it may always be resolved into these two parts , as, " Winds blow," u Winds are blowing."

25. The uniting of words, to form a sentence, is called construction or synthesis.

26. The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called analysis.

27. A simple sentence contains but one proposition.

28. A complex sentence contains two or more dissimilar propositions.

29. A compound sentence contains two or more similar propositions.

Section Ii.* The Proposition— Principal Elements

Note. The pupil should learn Lesson L, in the Appendix, p. 206, before studying this section.

30. A proposition is the combination of a subject (23) and predicate, and is either a simple sentence, or part of a complex or compound sentence.

31. The subject is that of which something is affirmed.

32. The predicate is that which is affirmed.

33. The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun.

(a.) Other parts of speech may be used as nouns, and therefore may become the subject ; as, " Once is sufficient ; " " Behind is not before."

(£.) Any word, used merely as a word, may be the subject ; as, u Is is a verb ; " " Qfisr a preposition."

(c.) A syllable or letter may be the subject ; as, " Un is a prefix; " " A is a vowel."

34. The predicate consists of two parts, — the verb, or copula, (17,) and that which is asserted

* Note to Teachers. The pupil should now commence the Appendix. The lessons of the Appendix are made to correspond, as nearly as possible, to the sections of Chap. I. Since it is the chief object of this arrangement to bring the principles of etymology into immediate use, as the pupil advances, the lessons of the Appendix should be learned only as they bl^g referred to, in the body of the work.

by it, called the attribute; (15,) as, "Snow is white.

It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the learner, at this stage of his progress, that the copula is that which gives vitality to language. No sentence can be formed without it. Any number of attributes joined to a subject without it would not form a proposition. The omission of this important connective is that which distinguishes the first attempts of children to utter their thoughts; as, "Cake good," for " Cake is good."

35. When the two parts of the predicate are united in one word, (24,) that word is always a verb ; as, "John writes"

(a.) Verbs which contain the copula and attribute are sometimes called attributive verbs, because the attribute is included in them.

(b.) The verb to be is sometimes an attributive verb; it then denotes existence, and is commonly preceded by there, and followed by its subject; as, "There are dolphins," "Dolphins exist."

(c.) Besides the verb to be, there are several others which do not complete the predicate, but take after them some word denoting a propert}^ of the subject ; as, " Beggars are becoming numerous ; " u He is called handsome.''' These verbs are sometimes called copulative verbs. They are such as become, seem, appear ; and the passive forms of deem, style, name, call, consider, and others.

36. Of a subject we may predicate, — (a.) What it does; as, " Birds fly ; " —

(b.) What qualities it possesses; as, "Sugar is sweet ; —

(c.) What it is ; as, "Wheat is a vegetable"

Of these predicates, («.) is always a verb ; (b.) an adjective; and (c.) a noun or pronoun.

37. These three parts of speech, — the noun, (including the pronoun.) the verb, and the adjecrive — are most commonly used to form the two principal elements of the sentence.

Note. Either of these three parts of speech may also be used to form the subordinate elements of a sentence.

38. A sentence containing only the two principal elements; is said to be unlimited, and is analyzed (26) by pointing out the subject and predicate.

39. Unlimited propositions should be analyzed according to the following

Models for Analysis.

" Birds fly" . is a proposition, because it contains a subject and predicate.

" Birds "... is the subject, because it is that of which the action (36, a.) "fly" is affirmed.

" Fly " .... is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed of " birds."

" Snow is white " is a proposition, because it contains a

subject and predicate.

" Snow " ... is the subject, because it is that of which

the quality (36, b.) "white" is affirmed. " Is white " . . is the predicate, because it is the quality

affirmed of " snow." " Is " is the verb or

copula, and u white " is the attribute.

" Gold is a metal " is a proposition, because it contains

a subject and predicate. lt Gold " .... is the subject, because it is that of which the

class * (36, c.) metal is affirmed.

* When the predicate is a noun, it commonly denotes to what genus, species, or class, the subject belongs. Sometimes it denotes identity ; as, " It is James ; " " I am he."

9* u Ts a metal" . is the predicate, because it denotes the class which is affirmed of " gold." u Is " is the verb, and " metal,'' the attribute.

Analyze the following propositions, according to the models : —

Brutus determined. George was conscious. Stare shine. Writers differ. Trees are plants. Virtue ennobles, Wisdom directs. Caesar conquered. Kings reign. Bichard was bold. Nero was cruel. Socrates was a philosopher. Night comes. Exercise strengthens. Serpents crawl. Winds blow. Eagles soar. Historians write. Boys play. Geography is interesting.

Predicate action (36 ? a.) of the following subjects : —

Horses, water, eagles, whales, quadrupeds, Columbus, Washington, father, mother, insects, wind, stars, children, fire, rain, leaves, grass, time, robbers, armies, moon, George, kings, wasps, acorns.

Model. Horses run. Water flows.

Predicate quality (36, 6.) of the following nouns : —

Life, peaches, ice, play, arithmetic, cloth, chairs, money, health, intemperance, history, darkness, morning, wisdom,

* The pupil should write these and similar examples upon a slate or paper, drawing a line under the illustrative word, and placing a period ( . ) at the end of each proposition. The first word in each sentence should commence with a capital. The exercises, after being corrected, should be copied into a writing book.

fruit, clothing, ink, grass, sky, cherries, : r er, fruit, soldiers, labor, wool, Mary.

Model. Life is short. Peaches are ripe.

Predicate the class or species (36, c.) of the following subjects : —

Henry, lemons, ducks, lilies, city, dogs, trouts, lions, lead, sheep, marbles, knives, air, Peter, Stephen, David. Model. Henry is a scholar. Lemons are fruit.

Let the pupil select the subjects and predicates of each sentence from a paragraph in his reading lesson, and tell whether action, quality, or species, is predicated.

Note. Before performing this exercise, learn Lesson II. in the Appendix.

Analyze the following propositions, and tell which subjects are proper, which are common, and which are collective, nouns : —

Alexander conquered. Zeno was a philosopher. Gray was a poet. Orders were issued. Snow falls. Temperance is a virtue. Waves dash. Darkness prevails. The army marched. The school was dismissed. The council was divided. Wrestling is dangerous. Lying is wicked. Charles reads. Age overtakes. Poets sing. Winds blow.

Write subjects to the following predicates : — * Proper Nouns. Is able ; was prevented ; believes ; sings ; dances ; plays ; is a merchant ; is a teacher ; is delighted ; must come ; is honorable ; is faithful. Model. Samuel is able.

Common Nouns. Rim ; is content ; is laudable ; is. pleasant ; is consumed ; can live ; write ; are trees ; are birds ; are fishes ; is desirable ; is contemptible. Model. Horses run.

Collective Nouns. Was divided ; was convened ; were pleased ; was defeated ; was dismissed.

Model. The school was divided.

Note. The pupil should review these exercises before com= mencing Section III. He should be required to point out the nouns, verbs, and adjectives, giving the class of each noun - A pp. Les. II.)

Section III. Modifications Of The Subject

40. Any change in the application of the subject, whether produced by altering the word which represents it, or by adding other words to it, is called a modification of the subject.

Although it is the principal office of the subject * to represent some person, thing, or some abstract idea, as the basis of an affirmation, yet the mechanism of language affords certain means by which its application may be so varied as to accommodate it to the existing state of the fact to be predicated. The application of the subject may be varied, — 1st. By some change in the word which represents it; as, " The soldier perished;" " The soldiers perished;" the assertion in the first sentence applying to one person, that m the second to more than one ; —

* Subject is derived from the Latin word subjectus, placed under, i. e., as the foundation of the sentence.

2d. By additional words ; as, " Ten soldiers perished; " " Brave soldiers perished." Here the subject, " soldiers," is restricted in its application to a certain number, (ten,) or to a certain class, (brave.)

Note. As this latter species of modification introduces a new element of the sentence, any further consideration of it must be deferred for the present.

41. When the application of the subject is varied by some change or inflection in the word which represents it, the modification is called an accident, or an accidental property ; as, " brother, brothers ; " " priest, priestess ; " w man, men."

42. The accidental properties of the subject, or of the noun, in any relation, are number, gender, person, case.

(a.) These properties belong to the noun or pronoun, either as subject, (31,) attribute, (15,) or object, (117.)

(b.) The accidents of the subject are shown, — 1st. By a change of form; as, " bird, birds ; " " hero, hero-ine ; " — 2d. By a change of the word, itself; aa, U He sings," (when I speak of the singer;) " You sing," (when I speak to the singer;) " J sing," (when 1 am the singer;) — 3d. By a prefix ; as, " a Ae-goat," M a cock- sparrow."

(c.) Some nouns admit of no inflection to denote a change in their application ; as, deer, sheep, vermin.

1.— Number of (lie Subject.

43. The subject may represent one person or thing, or more than one, as acting; as, " The branch withered ; " " The branches withered."

44. There are two numbers, — the singular and ihe plural. The singular denotes but one object, the plural more than one.

• K a.) Number is usually indicated by a change of form.

Note. For the formation of the plural, see App. Lesson III., which should be studied before attending to the following exercise.

Analyze the following examples, giving the number and class of Cach noun : —

Columbus sailed. Stars shine. James decreed. Cornwallis surrendered. Candia is an island. Socrates was poisoned. Lions roar. Grapes fall. Trees decay. Churches stand. Foxes are cunning. Weeds overrun. Benjamin was seen. Silver shines. Pencils are used. Washington was president. Kings are rulers. Eggs are broken. Vinegar is sour.

Write predicates to the plurals of the following

nouns : —

Star, son, pipe, monarch, church, hero, fife, ox, cargo, ship, man, child, lily, wolf, wife, folio, muff, negro, sheep, mystery, vermin, lady, turkey, chief, hoof, mouse, goose, fly, box, day, duty.

Model. Stars shine. Sons obey.

II, — Gender of the Subject.

45. All animals of the same species are either male or female. From this distinction arises the grammatical accident gender.

46. Most nouns denoting the different relations among men, and those of the most common and useful animals, also indicate their sex : as, father, mother ; uncle, aunt ; son, daughter ; ram, ewe ; cock, hen.

47. But , to those animals which are less useful, or are less observed by man, but one name is given for the male and female ; as, sparrow, mouse, pigeon.

(a.) In such cases, the sex is usually determined by a prefix ; as, cock-sparrow, he-mouse.

(b.) Some nouns denoting the mutual relations among men do not indicate sex ; as, parent, teacher, child.