A teachers' manual of lessons in language

Introduction

In this introduction will be found certain suggestions that are applicable to several grades of pupils.

Those suggestions and details of work which are particularly designed for a single grade follow this introduction and are arranged in chapters whose titles designate the grade to which they are applicable.

By pupils of the first grade are meant pupils of the lowest grade, or first school year.

The name of the grade, as used in this book, corresponds, in all cases, with the number of the year of school work.

The allotment of this work to the several years — first, second, and third — is not intended to prevent more or less being done by classes than is here laid down ; but to form an approximate standard of progress, and to indicate the order in which the work is best accomplished. Classes of higher grades must often review the work of lower grades. When a subject, already partially treated, is to be taken up anew, it will usually be best to begin with a review of the work already done in this subject.

There are two lines of work — oral and written — that must be carried on simultaneously almost from the first.

The oral work leads to the formation of a working vocabulary, and to the ability to use it, in accordance with good usage, in the construction of sentences.

When the child enters school his vocabulary consists of names for things, words to denote quality, action, relation, manner, place, etc., and he usually has the power to combine these in sentences to express his judgments. It is the duty of the teacher to revise and extend this vocabulary, until it shall cover all the fundamental forms of thought. This is best done by conversational lessons that recall observations, and lead to further exercise of the pupiFs senses, through which alone come his conceptions.

Marcel says : " An enlightened teacher can always draw out his pupils by questioning them on the forms, colors, dimensions, and other properties of any article whatever ; on its value, origin, mode of fabrication, and on the substances which enter into its composition. By the relations which this article may bear to others, he will be led to conversing with them on a great number of things, which cannot fail to extend their vocabulary and enlarge the sphere of their ideas."

The second and, after a time, parallel work is to give the pupil the ability to write the sentences expressing his thoughts.

To gain this ability certain steps are helpful.

First, to copy script.

Second, to copy print in script form.

Third, to write from memory.

Fourth, to write from dictation.

Fifth, to learn the use of capitals and marks of punctuation, and become familiar with customary forms of various papers or documents.

These are items of technical knowledge pertaining to the written forms of composition, and their mastery will enable one to express himself with the same readiness with his pen as with his tongue.

The oral process must, in all cases, precede the written, as being simpler, readier, and less difficult.

The first four of the steps enumerated above can be taken best under the eye and inspired by the voice of the teacher. It is a mistake to put a book on language into the hands of the pupil at this stage of his progress.

THE LESSONS. 3

Of the fifth step not much can be taken without the need of a text-book being seriously felt.

The art of composition itseK may be quite independent of the pen, and at first proceeds best without it ; for the child thinks in spoken words, and puts his thoughts into written words only by a process of translation.

Later in life, if he practise composition much, he thinks directly in written words, — as one learns to think in French after considerable study of the language, — and then the pen becomes an important aid to composition.

The conversational exercises designed to increase the number and distinctness of the pupil's concepts, and to give him a knowledge of the words which are their signs, may be considered language lessons or object lessons, according as they are viewed from their formal or their material side.

Language must have a place in the daily school programme, and must also receive attention in all school exercises. In the time of the regular language lesson the pupils learn what to say and how to say it; but in all their exercises their habits of speech are in process of formation, and must be continually guarded.

THE LESSONS

in this Manual are so framed as to secm^e from the pupils the use of the essential forms of common speech. If the children use these forms readily, through the influence of cultured homes or of previous instruction, the class passes at once to the next topic of instruction. With uncultivated and untrained children the questions in these exercises will occasion the thoughts which the teacher desires to have expressed ; but the proper form of expression may not be within the pupils' power. In such cases, — and they*will be many, — the proper answer must be substituted by the teacher, and the child be required to repeat his answer in the proper form. The child is to be stimulated to mental activity and free expression. He must be led to form the habit of good expression, so that he will try to say in precise and accurate language just what he thinks.

Incoiiiplete and inaccurate sentences should be rejected, and good answers should receive judicious commendation. A very good answer may sometimes be written upon the board by the teacher or by the pupil who made it. This serves the double pm^pose of affording commendation and presenting a model.

GENERAL. METHOD.

When a new topic is taken up, it should be dwelt upon until thoroughly understood by the class. This will usually require a full lesson, and often two, three, or four lessons. This point being gained, the teacher should advance to the next topic, and so proceed, in regular order, through the course for the year, or grade. AVhen a topic is first taken up, if it be at all difficult, the entire time of the lesson in language should be given to it ; but, usually with the second and subsequent lessons on a given topic, some review work, increasing daily in amount until the next topic is taken, can be done. This review work should consist usually of two parts : first, a continuation of the work upon the preceding topic ; second, a more remote review which begins with topic one, and continues until it overtakes the advance work. The remote review should then commence once more near the beginning of the work, and so on continually. In the later reviews, topics upon which sufficient attention has been bestow^ed can be passed over as the review proceeds.

The lesson will thus usually consist of three parts : the advance work, the near review, and the remote review.

Probably the first exercise of the morning and of the afternoon session will be found most advantageous for this work. All should participate.

In new work, the bright, quick pupils should be called upon first, and the slower ones later." In review work, this order should usually be reversed, but none should be neglected. After the first two years a single daily exercise wdll be sufficient.

TIME BEQUIBED. — DICTATION.

TIME REQUIRED.

Training children to use well their mother tongue will require much time and effort from the teacher. Much more than in any otiier school work will skill in questioning be required. Many of the questions which the teacher proposes to ask must be formulated in advance with great care and either committed to memory or copied into the recitation note-book. Success will demand an immense amount of drill and iteration. Day after day, w^eek after week, month after month, must the teacher continue the work of establishing the habit of using this and that acceptable form of speech.

Do not fear that it will be monotonous to the children. If you prepare yourself wdth care every day the w^ork will never be wearisome to your pupils, but pleasant rather, because a sense of growing skill and power will give them delight. And yet a caution is advisable. A series of similar questions, involving no effort to answer them, may become tiresome. Only thought-compelling questions or those directly preparatory to such should ever be asked in the recitation.

DICTATION.

Dictation is an exercise w^hose importance cannot well be overrated. Not much original written work should be attempted until the pupil has had considerable dictation drill.

Before dictation is attempted the pupil should have practice in copying script from the blackboard and print from a text-book. Next, the pupil should write from memory verses, maxims, and gems until he obtains readiness in the use of the pen.

While this practice is in progress the pupil should gain some knowledge of the fundamental rules of punctuation, of capitals and paragraphing, from having his attention called to these elements in that which he copies.

The teacher should make herself sure by test and explanation that the meaning and spelling of every word in the sentences to be dictated are known by the pupils before they are set to writing them.

The first dictations should be of matter \Yhich had been copied some time before. These dictations should be followed by those of new matter, quite similar in form to the previous ones.

This work is particularly adapted to the second and third years of school life, and should occupy a large percentage of the time allotted to language lessons during these years. If it be carried on in an order duly progressive and with sufficient painstaking, an admirable foundation for future progress will be laid.

A dictation exercise may be conducted as follows : The class being ready with slates and pencils at hand, but not in hand, the teacher reads through the paragraph which is to be dictated, pupils listening but not writing. The teacher then reads again the paragrajDh, a few words at a time, and pauses at the end of each reading to give the class time to write the words read. When the paragraph is in this way completed, the teacher may reread it continuously as was done at first.

After the dictation, have the exercise written correctly upon the blackboard. (If this could be done before the lesson and could remain covered from the sight of the children it would be better.) Let each pupil then compare his own work with the board work and make the necessary corrections.

If the exercise is not new or specially diffictilt, instead of correcting from the blackboard, papers may be exchanged for correction and the teacher may then reread the dictation, naming the points to be noticed.

ORAL DESCRIPTIONS.

The child's first descriptions will, of course, be oral, and likewise brief and partial. They should be of things in which he is interested, and about which he desires to tell others. A child may be sent to the window and after taking his seat may tell of one or of several things that he saw, describing them so as to picture them to his mates. Perhaps he saw a tree. Let him so describe it that the others will recognize it. Perhaps he saw a man in a carriage. Let him give such items respecting the man, the horse, the carriage, as will convey some definite idea. He may describe, without naming it, somethmg that he saw on his way to school, and the class may tell what it is.

CHILBBEN ' S GAMES. — NABBA TION.

CHILDREN'S GAMES.

The games of children furnish good material for language work. Ask the children what games they know how to play ; how many can play each game. Have some child tell the rest how it is done. If it be a game for the house let several of the children play the game, the rest looking on and thinking how to describe it.

After the game is over have several of the children describe the game as it was and as it should be played, giving the good points noticed and criticising the mistakes or neglect of the players.

Such a topic makes a good subject for oral, but not for written, composition, except with pupils older than we are now considering. Such a topic will afford a convenient opportunity to give the children the idea of orderliness in description.

NARRATION.

N'arration concerns itself with events; description, with things. Narration uses verbs and adverbs as description uses nouns and adjectives. The study of narration begins with personal experiences, continues through stories, heard or read, fables, and biographies, to history, which is the highest form of narration.

For an early exercise in narration, encourage children to tell what they did last evening after school, this morning before coming to school ; what they did on Saturday last-; what they did in the last vacation. Children should be encouraged to tell their mates of the things they have seen and heard. The desire to tell should give zest to expression. In the effort to interest others in their discoveries real composition can be secured without drudgery. Every night tell the little ones to find out something for the next day, and in the morning have a conversation exercise based on the children's own discoveries.

MANUAL TO LUSSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ORAL. REPRODUCTION.

One of the best tests of a trained mind is the ability to reproduce a story accurately and fully. One of the best exercises in language training is reproduction. Reproduction is of thoughts, not of words nor of sentences.

For a child to be able to give readily and in good language the substance of what is told to him or of what he reads is an attainment of great value. His career as a pupil depends very largely upon the possession of this power.

Teachers usually try to train their pupils in this direction, but many fail because they do not attempt it wisely or with sufficient preparation. The child will reproduce better what he hears than w^hat he sees ; narration than description. Hence stories told to the children should be selected for the first reproductions, (a) The work may be commenced by asking each child to tell a little story to the class, beginning with the children most forward and apt in this work, and continuing until all or nearly all have told two or more stories. (b) The teacher may tell short and interesting stories to the class, and have them repeated on the following day by several of the children. Fables, anecdotes, biblical and classical stories are suitable for this purpose. The story should be very interesting and long enough to prevent the pupijs from remembering the exact words of the teacher, but not too long to have the incidents all recalled by the greater part of the pupils. It will do no harm to repeat the same stories over again after a few weeks, (c) The teacher may read a little story, stopping at the end of each phrase and sentence to give the explanations which seem necessary. There should be an animated and interesting conversation in which the children should take the larger part; but the thought and form should be directed by the teacher. ^' Do not talk to the children, but with them. The child is, above all things, active, and this activity should be afforded full opportunity to display itself." It is not so much you who are to talk with the children as the children who are to talk with you. The explanations finished, the teacher will read the story a second time from beginning to end without interruption, and will then have it repeated from memory by several of the

WRITTEN REPRODUCTIONS. 9

children, letting the other pupils supply any omissions or correct any misstatements. The story may be repeated on other days by other pupils until it can be told readily by any of the class.

WRITTEN REPRODUCTIONS.

Written reproductions should not be attempted until the class has reached a fair degree of facility and of correctness of expression in oral reproductions.

Oral expressions can readily be put into better form, if need be, through the suggestions of the teacher before crudities of expression have become fixed as they would be by the use of the pencil.

It is fortunate that when we express ourselves in oral language, intent chiefly upon the thought, as we always ought to be in a first expression, the language that we use makes very little impression upon us, and we are not very likely to recall it. But if we write, the slowness and formality of the writing and the sight of the words in their order in the sentences, tend to fix the words and their arrangement in the mind. Hence, expressions should be put into the best form readily obtainable by the pupil, before they are committed to writing.

Method. After a story has been reproduced orally, and before it has become familiar by repetition, the teacher may write upon the board a little summary of the story or a column of catch words that will help the pupils to reproduce the story. The pupils may then be set to writing it, each in his own style, but fully and interestingly. During this writing the teacher may pass among her pupils to notice their work, giving an occasional suggestion or criticism, or she may stand by her desk ready to answer questions as to the spelling of words, the punctuation of sentences, or the best forms of expression.

When the time for writing has expired, all should be required to cease writing and to attend to the reading and criticism of what they have written. As they read, one after another, their reproductions, these may be criticised by the teacher or by the pupils as to (1) omissions, (2) incorrect statements, (3) faulty constructions.

Omissions should be supplied by other members of the class. Incorrect statements should*be rectified and faulty constructions amended during a free and kind conversation between teacher and pupils.

It is not necessary that the teacher should look over the slates or papers for minute criticisms. The reading will suggest the main points.

The teacher of younger pupils may ask, ^Yhat is your first sentence? How does it begin? How is it punctuated? How are the words spelled? Can it be improved? Appeal to the class to know if the answers are correct.

Exercises not well done should be rewritten. Young children are much more patient of these re^Titings than older ones are, and all of the simpler and more common faults of writing ought to be extirpated at an early period.

GEMS.

Pupils from their first attendance at school to their entrance to the high school should learn every week some line, stanza, or paragraph, beautiful in thought and in language.

At first the sentiment, the moral influence of the passage, should be chiefly considered ; but later the beauty and the force of the language and the breadth and the truthfulness of the thought must be regarded. For the first half dozen years of school life, all in a class should learn the same passages and recite them individually and in concert, receiving such paraphrase and explanation as may lead the pupils to get the thought and appreciate its dress.

Selections to be memorized are not included in this book, for much will depend upon the taste and must be left to the choice of the individual teacher. The somxes of such gems as may suit the taste of all are not far for any one to seek.

DESCRIPTION OF PICTURES.

A favorite exercise with teacher and pupils is the description of pictures. This cannot well be done before the second year. Some

BESCBIPTION OF PICTURES, 11

preliminary training is requisite to prevent the description from becoming mere talking with little thought, or the dull repetition of a form. Monotony is proof of bad method. Before pupils undertake the description of pictures they need preparatory lessons in describing position, form, size, color, and quality. The forms " I see," " there is," " he has," and others, with their plurals and the present and past tenses of several verbs such as are needed in describing actions, must also be taught.

The teacher's platform or the corner of the room in front of the pupils may constitute the frame of the first pictures to be described, and the children themselves, variously posed, may represent the pictures. This will awaken interest, secure thought and free expression, give endless variety, and accord with the order of the child's mental development.

Position is one main element to be described in a picture. A good drill upon description of position may be given by placing two or three boys before the school in certain relative positions wiiich the pupils describe. Vary these positions and secure the appropriate changes in the description.

A very simple arrangement might be described as follows : " On the platform are two girls, Mary and Ellen. Mary is older than Ellen, and is sitting in a chair, while Ellen is standing at her right side a little in front of her. Ellen is holding out a book to Mary. I think she will let Mary take the book to study her lesson."

This is more than enough for the younger pupils to say at first, but as they become expert at description they can describe, more minutely, the girls, their dress, their attitude, their purpose, their actions, etc.

Various articles may be made accessory to the main features of the scene, as the desk, the blackboard, the cabinet, the doors, the windows, the pictures upon the wall.

A definite understanding of the extent of the picture should be given in advance. The teacher may enter the scene, acts may be performed, and little tableaux arranged, as the skill of the pupils in description increases.

The following hints of simple arrangements that can readily be varied and improved by any apt teacher, are given to suggest the resources for this work found in any school-room : —

1. A child with her doll, which she is teaching to walk (dance).

2. Teacher holding in her lap a little child, who . . .

3. A boy, with two others as his horses.

4. Boy playing doctor to the doll of a little girl.

5. Two boys, with hats and canes.

6. Girl with basket on arm.

7. Boy with express-wagon.

8. Teacher pointing to an example on the blackboard, at which three boys are looking.

9. Little girl arranging teacher's desk.

10. Ditto, two girls . . .

11. Boy holding another by the hand.

12. Small boy teaching a class.

13. Pupil writing on the board, another sitting in the teacher's chair reading.

14. A little girl showing a smaller boy pictures in her book.

15. Two boys leaning over a table drawer.

16. A boy helping a little girl down from the platform.

17. Five children dancing in a ring.

18. One girl putting flowers into another girl's hair.

19. Two girls seated, with their dolls. . 20. Two boys shaking hands.

21. Boy leaning on the back of an empty chair.

22. Boy leaning on the chair in which another is seated.

23. A girl showing another something in a basket.

24. Two girls, with arms around each other's necks, pointing to a girl on the other side of the platform.

25. Boy and girl, with skates in their hands.

26. Two boys, one with skates in his hands, the other with books.

27. Two boys come upon the platform from opposite sides, meet, shake hands, and pass off.

28. A child with eyes shut and mouth open, another putting something into the open mouth.

29. Two children with hands clasped high, a third creeping under their hands.

30. A boy giving a girl some flowers.

31. Two boys swinging their caps.

METHODS WITH PICTURES. 13

METHODS WITH PICTURES.

Many sets of pictures suitable for this work are now published, or the teacher can make her own. Some gray cardboard cut to suitable size, a paste-brush, paste, and scissors will furnish the " plant." Publishers* catalogues, the illustrated papers, juvenile picture books, the card stores, etc., etc., will furnish the pictures. The children will readily bring many of them from home.

Large pictures easily seen by one entire class may be mounted on manilla paper, with eyelets attached for suspension.

A picture may be placed before a class for study and description, and such words as would naturally be used in the description may be placed upon the blackboard. These words become suggestive to the children, who weave them into sentences descriptive of the picture.

If a sufficient number of pictures can be obtained, they may be distributed to a division of pupils, who arise and each in turn describe the pictures which they hold.

In describing pictures, the actual size of the objects represented should be stated, and, as far as practicable, illustrated. This will prevent many unfortunate misconceptions and develop the picturing power of the mind.

A picture may be studied at several successive lessons, receiving each day a new treatment. The jB.rst day the objects may be noted and names given. For another lesson the qualities of the objects may be, as far as possible, determined. Next may be considered the relations of the parts of the picture to each other, the position, what they are doing, why so doing. Some story of which this picture might be an illustration may become a fourth exercise. In most cases, however, it will be better to proceed more rapidly than this.

Teacher. What do you see in this picture ?

Pupil. I see a little boy.

T. What is the boy doing?

P. He is carrying in his right hand a tin can, under his left arm a loaf of bread wrapped in a brown joaper, in his left hand a basket containing corn and beans.

T, Where has the boy been?

moL.' '"''"' ^' '"' '"" *° *'' ^™''"-^ °^ ^°-^ ---d« for h:s r. M'hat kind of boy do you think that he is ? P. I think that he is an industrious and obliging boy

tV,/; u':- r' '""'^^ '^^ "^°™"'S' to do some chores and co to th sto.. betore he went to school. Can you now tell about tMs^^ict ure without my questions ? ^

P. I see in this picture a little boy who, etc. ^ T. You may write something about this boy. See what you can write m ten minutes. jou can

It may be well to take the same picture, a day or two later, and encourage each pupil either to expand and improve his former effort^ to give an entirely different treatment.

When a class has gained sufficient skill in the work, the followinogeneral form for the description of pictures may be sugge ted : (a) wS IS in the fo.-eground, the background, at the right, at the left / M The persons or thmgs that are to be seen ; what are their names actl cha acters. appearance? (.) Invent a story to correspond witlUhe ^^i:: ^

ILLUSTRATIVE PICTURES.

For pupils of the third and higher grades, the following exercise will be found very useful, if the class has sufficient talent therfoi iTeSSer '''"' ''-'' ^^^ '' '''' *° ~^ surprisingi; wen in

scene aboivt which you have read and tell how it looks to vou voi!

. . i3escube it to us so that we shall see the picture that you do."

CORRECTION OF WRITTEN WORK.

COBBJECTION OF WBITTEN WORK. 15

First, prevention is better than correction. Instruction should precede written work and prepare for it. See note 2, p. 211, Book I.

Mistakes in spelling require special, early, and persistent treatment. The pupils' written exercises should furnish the material for a considerable portion of the spelling lessons of the class.

At the time of writing, pupils should be encouraged to ask the teacher how to spell any word which they wish to use and which they do not feel sure they know how to spell.

As pupils read their written work they may be asked about the spelling of certain words, their use of capitals and marks of punctuation. Thus these three elements of error may be considerably eliminated from the papers before they are handed to the teacher.

The papers of the class should lie upon the teacher's desk from the close of one written exercise to the beginning of the next, and during this time the teacher should look them over sufficiently to discover how well they are done and what the more common errors are.

At the beginning of the next lesson in language these papers may be handed to the class, each pupil receiving the paper of some one else, and mistakes may be marked.

Words misspelled should be underscored. Errors or omissions in the use of capitals and marks of punctuation may be shown by P placed at the beginning of the line in which the mistake appears. The sign V placed at the beginning of a line may signify that in this line there is some mistake other than in spelling, capitals, and punctuation.

Papers may then be returned to the writers, and each pupil may write upon a slip of paper the words misspelled, and upon his slate, in amended form, the sentences in which errors were found.

If a pupil has any doubt about the correction of a marked sentence let him show it to the teacher, or copy it upon the board for the* consideration of the class and the teacher.