Elementary industrial work

Preface

We are no longer required to prove to the public that training in the Manual Arts is an essential factor in any educational curriculum. We are frank to admit, however, that we are not conceited enough to say that we have learned the best methods of giving training along this line. The contents of this book are what seem to the author the best that has been found up to the present time for the particular phase of the work for which it is intended. Each problem has been selected only after careful testing in the classroom. All of them have demonstrated their practicability. In a general way, nearly everyone knows about the crafts problems and projects suitable for classwork. But when it comes to using them as such, trifling details, simple in themselves, come up and cause the proposed handwork to be omitted. The wise teacher who has not thoroly learned how to do the work readily, substitutes. Often a few simple suggestions would have cleared up all vagueness.

The material in this book is of such a nature that any "wideawake" teacher may with a little patience and application use it without an instructor.

The teaching of this subject has always been somewhat handicapped by the scarcity of text-books that are suitable. Most of them treat only some of the materials that may be used — it is the purpose of this book to treat all that are advisable.

Students in my classes have often asked that we have a text-book treating the subject-matter that we cover. In answer to this and the other demand referred to, this little volume has been prepared.

VI

Introduction

The title of this book does not mean to imply that we are to train for any trade, but it is evident that industrial training necessarily must be included in our curriculum when thirty of our thirty-two millions of workers must earn their living by the use of their hands. A mere "busy-work" period coming for its share of time is not sufficient. The work must stand for something definite, and tangible results must be in evidence. The standard of skilled labor demanded by the industries is already being raised. This elementary work paves the way for the shopwork which will come later.

Handwork is often an incentive to more concentrated application at other subjects. Pupils will work harder if they are looking forward to a period when they can lay aside their books and work with their hands.

• While working, keep in mind design and proportion. It is just as easy to teach good proportion as it is to permit the development of a disregard for proportion, if the child is only guided in his efforts.

Never strive for quantity at the expense of quality. Honest constructions should always be adhered to, even tho imitations may shorten the work and be "just as good." Have your problems so graded that the children for whom they are planned can execute them in a creditable way. There are teachers who are wont to say that a certain execution is very good considering the age of the child— that is a poor standard Plan the problems so that good results can be demanded.

Exhibits are a necessary evil. A great deal of time and effort are expended for same, which reduces the time for actual classwork, which is too short as it is. It is fortunate, of course, that parents and friends are interested in the results achieved by the children, but it is such a temptation to help the child in preparing his piece for the exhibit by executing parts of it that he cannot execute himself. The product then ceases to belong to the pupil and becomes the work of the teacher.

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There are two general suggestions for methods of procedure that are worth while. In the lower grades, use the work in teaching history, industries, occupations, etc.; in the higher grades, constructions and technique should be mastered and emphasized. All of the time, however, initiative should be considered and developed.

The different phases of the work need not be taken up in the order of the chapters that follow. Each chapter begins with the simplest manipulation of the subject-matter of which it is treating, and leads up to the more difficult.

This book does not attempt to carry any of the crafts into the realm of professionalism. But since most schools, both rural and city, are doing work of this kind in the lower grades, this book hopes to accomplish its mission by helping those who study it to develop better and more sincere methods of instruction.

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Contents

Page.

CHAPTER 1 . Mechanical Drawing .... 1

1 . A Simple Working Drawing ... 2

2. Lettering 5

3. Designs 9

4. Geometric Problems . . . . 10

CHAPTER II. Community Work 14

1 . A Barnyard Scene . . . . 16

A Street Scene 18

Doll-House Construction ... 23 The Building of Houses . . . .31

Holiday Season 37

Envelopes 40

Boxes 42

St. Valentine 43

Washington's Birthday . . . .46

Easter Season 49

Hanging, Gift and May Baskets . .51

CHAPTER V. Cord and String Work .... 66

1. Watchchains 67

2. Guard for Scissors 69

3. Square Knot 70

6. The Double Sailor's Knot . . .72

7. Whips 72

CHAPTERjVI. Burlap Work 76

1. A Mat 76

2. A Napkin Ring 77

3. A Shaving-Pad 78

4. A Holder 79

5. ANeedlebook 80

CONTEN TS— Continued.

Page.

6. A Cardcase 80

7. A Bag for Books ... . . .82

8. A Pincushion 82

9. Sofa Pillows 83

1. Desk-Pads 124

2. Portfolios 127

3. A Simple Booklet 129

4. Another Book 130

5. Loose-Leaf Books 131

6. Art Books 133

CHAPTER X. Basketry 135

1. Reed Mats 136

2. How to Utilize Mats . . . .142

3. Reed Baskets 145

4. Willow Baskets 151

5. Coiled Baskets 151

6. Hard-Coiled Baskets . . . .153

7. Baskets of Natural Material . .159

8. Flat Reed Baskets 160

CHAPTER XI. Design .163

1. Block-Printing 171

2. Stenciling 172

CHAPTER XII. Bird-Houses 176

1. A Wren-House 176

2. A Larger Bird-House . . . . 1 79

3. Other Bird-Houses . . .181

I. Working Drawings

An understanding of simple working drawings is necessary for hand work of any form.

Mechanical drawing differs from free-hand work. In free-hand drawing things are represented as they are seen, or as they impress one. In mechanical drawing things are drawn as they exist, or really are.

In drawing any view of an object, either top, end or side, only two dimensions are used. Those are length and breadth. The point of view is assumed to be at an infinite distance from the object; therefore, no thickness or third dimension is considered.

Instruments shown in Figure 1 are essential, being a drawing-board, T-square, 30x60 and 45x45 degree triangles, and thumb-tacks. A compass will also be needed.

In using the T-square, the beam (part to which the blade is nailed) should be firmly held against the end of the board in order that all of the lines drawn will be parallel. The triangles are used to draw lines perpendicular to those drawn with the T-square and for drawing lines to make the various angles mentioned under Figure 1 . The T-square may also be used from the top of the board if the upper left-hand corner is square so that the angle it makes with the line already drawn will be a right angle.

In addition to what has already been mentioned, Figure 1 also shows a sheet of drawing paper 9"xl2 n in place. The edge of the paper must be parallel with the blade of the T-square. This is easily done by fastening only one of the lower corners and then moving the paper until the upper edge is just in line with the T-square, when the other tacks may be inserted.

The character " to the right and above the Figures 9 and 1 2 in the preceding paragraph designates inches. If there is but one of these characters ('), that designates feet. These characters will be used thruout this book.

1. A SIMPLE WORKING DRAWING.

A simple working drawing is shown in Figure 2 with all construction lines and method of projection. Figure 3 shows the drawing complete, after inking in all necessary lines and erasing the construction lines.

The conventions in the lower right-hand corner of Figure 2 are not a part of that plate, but are for the purpose of learning their names. No. 1 is a line used to represent visible edges; No. 2, invisible edges; No. 3, dimension lines; No. 4, working or projection lines; and No. 5, center lines.

WORKING DRAWINGS.

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The first step in the making of a working drawing is the drawing of lines parallel with the four edges of the sheet, leaving a margin of l n in case the sheet is 9"xl2", the size of the sheet, of course, governing this width. This done, proceed to measure your object, and, comparing it with the length and width of the area on which it is to be drawn, determine the scale. By scale is meant whether it is to be drawn full size, one-half size, one-quarter size, etc. The spaces to the right and left of the views drawn should be equal, but those above and below so arranged as to get a spacing that looks well.

Drawing to scale is sometimes confusing to beginners. The parts are drawn to scale, which makes the whole drawing proportionate, gaining a definite idea of the full-sized article; but, in putting in the dimensions, use those of the article itself, otherwise we would not be representing what we started out to draw.

In drawing the pencil lines, make them slightly longer than necessary, in order that they may cross at the corners, which will avoid errors in inking, since a part of the drawing is covered with the T-square or triangles.

The views are placed, as a rule, just as they are labeled in Figure 2 — the top view with the end view to the right of it, and the side, or front, view directly below the top view. The top view is always drawn first, and most of the parts on the side and end view can be projected from this. By projection is meant the continuation of a certain line or lines in order to get a point or a part of the other view without measuring. The different views are never labeled in the real drawing, since the position for each view is fixed.

Begin, having the margin lines drawn, by drawing the long horizontal lines. Next space off on these by means of dots where the vertical lines will cross. Following this the shafts of the dimension lines are drawn.

The drawing is now ready for the insertion of dimensions, but first, draw lines to aid in the lettering and numbering. After drawing said lines as shown in Figure 2, do the lettering; but the barbs on the dimension lines are not drawn in pencil, since they are directly done free-hand and in ink.

The inking comes next. Ink the heavy lines first (visible and invisible), and then the lighter lines. Lastly, using a fine pen, ink in the letters, figures and barbs. Erase all pencil and finger marks, and the drawing is complete.

If Figures 2 and 3 are not understood after the foregoing explanation, examine a box and try to see the different views. The sides of the box are nailed to the ends, and the bottom is nailed on the lower edges of both sides and ends.

Get a better insight by making a few drawings similar to Figure 3 from models that may be had.

2. LETTERING.

Working drawings should never be labeled or marked in script. Script is not in keeping with the work, so the practice of the practical draftsman is followed.

The lettering may "make or break" a drawing. In other words, a drawing, tho perfectly drawn, presents a disagreeable appearance if poorly lettered. It does for the drawing what paint and decoration do for the house.

In our work in the grades we shall not aspire to the skill acquired by a professional draftsman, but work away from top-heavy and poorly-proportioned letters.

Lettering immediately resolves itself into drawing and design. It is design until a properly sized, shaped and proportioned letter has been decided upon. The execution then is simply drawing.

The style commonly accepted is the plain "Gothic." It meets the requirements as to simplicity and ease of execution, making possible speed with practice. For work in the grades these should always be used except in designs where only a few letters are necessary.

In teaching the alphabet, first draw the letters free-hand on the blackboard, using four guide lines in the beginning. This is shown in the lettering on the plate in Figure 2.

The capitals, or upper case, Figure 4, should be taken up first. Have the pupils rule horizontal lines similar to those drawn on the board by the teacher. Discouragement can often be avoided in the beginning if the letters are not made too tall. It will be found that I" is a good height. When the guide lines have been drawn, lettering may be started. It is not well to begin and letter from A to Z. H being the most fundamental letter, it may be taken first. The vertical parts must be made at a single stroke of the pencil and as nearly vertical as possible. The horizontal is then drawn in the center or slightly above the center. There is only one letter that has the cross or horizontal line below the center, which is A, altho the horizontal line in G is sometimes drawn below the center, which is permissible.

WORKING DRAWINGS.

ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

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ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRbTUVWXY

BDEHN ABHlTV

BLOCK FULL BLOCK (mm EXTENDED

The width of the letters varies from I to W, but the majority of them are of the same width as that of the letter H.

After a line of H's has been drawn, the other letters in this group may be practiced — I, L, T, F, E and N — drawing the vertical lines first in each case.

The next letters to be studied are A, M, K, W, X, Y, Z. No new difficulties are presented. It should be noticed, tho, that the M and W differ in that the sides of the M are straight, while those of the W are drawn at an angle. This angle should not be very large, or the letter will look weak. The Y should not be made too wide, or it will look top-heavy.

The letters involving curved lines are taken up next— U, J, 0, Q, C, D, G, P, R, B, S. U and J are made by adding curves to the horizontal lines. The letter is made by drawing a left-hand curve from top to bottom, and then a right-hand curve, joining at the top and bottom. What has been said about the U, J and will make the others possible. In S care should be taken to avoid making the lower half smaller than the upper half.

The numerals in Figure 6 are studied next. Only the 6, 8 and 9 need analysis. The 6 and 9 are drawn as indicated by the numbers on the figures in Figure 6, 1 being the first stroke, and 2 the second. The number 8 is made up of two ovals, the upper one being slightly smaller than the lower one.

The lower-case letters (Figure 5) are practiced last. No difficulty should be experienced. Keep the straight lines horizontal. Only after considerable practice is it wise to attempt either upper case, lower case or numerals at an angle as shown in Figure 7.

The width of the letters has been mentioned, but not in proportion to the height. This varies considerably; but, if it is figured mechanically, twothirds is a safe proportion for average lettering. For sake of variety, or because of the smallness of the space, letters can be drawn much narrower in proportion to the height. These are called condensed, and show in the plate on lettering. When they are much wider in proportion to the height, they are called extended.

Spacing is a very important consideration. Area of space between the letters should be equal or nearly so, rather than the actual distance in a horizontal line from one letter to another. If the spaces are equal in width, dark spots will appear. Therefore, H and E coming together should be more widely separated than E and F, or F and J. And even F and J can

WORKIXG DRAWINGS. 9

be drawn closer together than E and F. The eye must learn to gauge the proper spaces, as no set rule will always effect good spacing. T can be made to overlap the letter preceding or following it, and Y and T coming together are sometimes narrowed.

The letters should now be drawn with the aid of only two guide lines. But never attempt to letter without any guide lines, altho some are able to work with but one, which is the reward of persevering practice.

3. DESIGNS.

It is desirable, even in the lower grades, to design titles, valentines, illuminated initials, posters, portfolios, etc., involving more elaborate lettering than has been studied up to this time.

The block letters just below Figure 8 are the simplest of these, since they can be drawn without the aid of instruments.

By the addition of serifs (labeled A in Figure 9) and spurs (labeled B in Figure 9) we make of the block a full-block letter.

The "Classic Roman" (Figure 8) is an alphabet drawn in outline. This affords a letter that can be colored, which is quite effective.

The "Italian Renaissance" (Figure 9) is quite similar to the "Classic Roman," but executed in solid and not in outline.

Those desiring to elaborate along this line have only to notice what is around them. Window signs, magazine covers, headlines in magazines, and various magazine advertisements, provide ample material for many and varied letters and executions.

ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL WORK.

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4. GEOMETRIC PROBLEMS.

In executing the different problems in hand-work construction and design some geometric constructions are necessary. Only those most frequently used will be given. The problems are to be worked out by means of the ruler and compass.

The T-square with triangles is not to be used here, since we are brought in contact with these problems when drawing board, T-square and triangles are not available.

In the solution of a geometric problem we have three parts: First, that which is given; second, the construction; third, that which is required. The part required in the problem is drawn heavier in the figure than parts 1 and 2.

I — To draw a perpendicular to a given line at a given point in the line (Figure 10): With C as center, and a radius less than CA or CB, strike arcs at 1 and 2. With 1 and 2 as centers, and a radius greater than one-half the distance from 1 to 2, strike arcs intersecting at 3. Draw a line from point C passing thru 3, which is the perpendicular required.

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II — To draw a perpendicular at the end of a given line (Figure 11): With A as center, and any radius, draw an arc, nearly a semicircle, cutting the line AB at 1. With 1 as center, and with the same radius, strike an arc cutting this arc at 2. With 2 as center, and with the same radius, strike the arc 3-4. With 3 as center, and with the same radius, cut the arc 3-4 in four. A line drawn from point A thru the intersection at 4 is the required perpendicular.

Ill — To bisect a given straight line or an arc of a circle (Figure 12): Take A and B as centers, with a radius greater than one-half of AB, strike arcs intersecting at 1 and 2. Draw line passing thru 1 and 2 which passed thru 3 and 4, bisecting both arc and line. This line is also perpendicular to the straight line AB.

IV — To draw a line parallel to a given line at a given distance (Figure 13): Let CD be the given line and AB the given distance. With 1 and 2 as centers (any two points in the line CD), and radius AB, strike arcs 3 and 4; then draw EF, the required line.

V — To bisect a given angle (Figure 14): With B, in the ABC, as center, strike an arc intersecting AB and BC in 1 and 2. With 1 and 2 as centers, and any radius greater than one-half the distance from 1 to 2, strike arcs intersecting at 3. Draw the line B3 which bisects the angle ABC.

VI — To trisect aright angle (Figur 15): Withe B as center, and any radius, strike an arc intersecting A and C in 1 and 2. With the same radius take 1 and 2 as centers, and cut the arc in 3 and 4. Draw B3 and B4, trisecting the right angle.

ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL WORK.

VII — To inscribe a regular hexagon within a given circle (Figure 16): Draw a diameter cutting the circle at A and B. With A and B as centers, and the radius of the circle as radius, strike arcs cutting the circumference at 1, 2, 3 and 4. Draw 1-3, 3B, B4, 4-2, 2A, Al, and the inscribed figure is the regular hexagon.

To divide a circle into three equal parts (Figure 1 6) : Draw lines from 1 , 2 and B to the center instead of joining the points in the circumference to form the hexagon.

To divide a semicircle into three equal parts (Figure 16): Draw lines from 1 and 3 to the center of the line AB. This applies to the upper half of the figure.

VIII — To inscribe a regular octagon within a given circle (Figure 17): Draw a diameter cutting the circumference at 1 and 2, then draw another diameter at right angles to the first one, cutting the circumference at 3 and 4. Bisect the right angles thus formed, cutting the circumference at 5, 6, 7 and 8. Draw lines connecting the intersections in the circumference, and the inscribed figure is the regular octagon.

IX — To construct a regular

octagon within a given square

With ABDC the given square, draw

With A, B,

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diagonals intersecting at the center.

C and D as centers, and a radius equal to one-half of the diagonal as radius, strike arcs intersecting the sides of the square in points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Draw 5-3, 8-2, 4-6 and 1-7, making the required octagon.

X — To inscribe a regular pentagon within a given circle (Figure 19): Draw a diameter AB and a radius EC perpendicular to it. Bisect AE at 1. With 1 as a center, and radius 1C, cut the diameter AB at 2. With C as a center, and radius C2, strike an arc cutting the circumference at 3. C3 is a side of the required pentagon. Set off this distance on the circumference five times. Draw 4C, C3, 3-6,, 6-5 and 5-4, and the required pentagon is complete.

II. Community Work

In a genuine course of hand-work two things should be sought for: First, the interrelation of different problems; secondly, there should be something about the work that should make each phase or part of it contribute to the whole of the year's work and not let any one part of it be an isolated fragment. And this second, which is sometimes violated in trying to overcome the first, is a flexible program prescribed by the immediate surroundings and interests of the children. It is never advisable to have a fixed and definite program to be carried out in every room of the grade for which it is intended. No flexibility is in evidence and the imagination is hampered.

In choosing the form of community work to be executed, care should be exercised so as to avoid anything that will necessitate elaborate material or equipment. Children should be permitted to select the problem to be executed, but the teacher can always get them to choose something possible. Any local industry can be worked out in a simple way. An excursion or visit to the factory should always precede the beginning of the work.

Since most of the community work is construction from paper and cardboard, do not try to exclude all other material. Weaving, clay modeling, and the use of splints and reeds are often resorted to; and, since this often takes up several months, work for the special days must receive its share of time in due season. Exercises for Thanksgiving, Christmas, Valentine Day, Washington's Birthday, etc., are used to advantage.

Among the most possible executions in the form of community work are the following:

1. A barnyard scene, including the building of

2. Street scenes, including houses, stores, churches,

carts, wagons, telegraph poles and wires, trees, etc.

4. A dollhouse constructed of dry-goods boxes.

Furnishing to include not alone furniture, but the covering for the walls and floors, and curtains for the windows.

5. Indian life in connection with Hiawatha.

6. History of transportation.

7. Industries, as lumbering, mining, cotton, etc.

8. Eskimo life.

9. Mcdern villages, giving attention to, or using

it to teach sanitation and to give some definite ideas about the planning of homes. (When using the same industry or scene for different rooms of the same grade be sure that each room carries a distinction of its own, so that it will not be executed in precisely the same way as the others.) What has been suggested is applicable to the first three or four grades. And No. 9 is applicable to the upper grades.

The paper for this work should be rather heavy. Any of the construction papers are good, and bogus paper which is used for many purposes is quite desirable, since it takes crayon so well.

The best way to use paste is to cut small pieces of cardboard and put a small amount of paste on a piece for each child, returning the paste that is not used to the jar. A formula for paste is given in the chapter on Miscellaneous Paper Sloyd, page 56.

1 . A BARNYARD SCENE.

White paper, scissors and paste are needed for this problem. It is well to have the blunt-pointed scissors, so that the young children will not injure themselves. The cuttings are free-hand, and then pasted on the blackboard. After the work is finished the paste is easily removed by washing, and you have a fresh, clean board.

This is probably one of the simplest forms of community work, and makes an excellent problem for the first grade. Silhouette work is of the same type where the cutting is done in black paper and mounted on white or manila paper. The scene illustrated in plate 1 is only one of the many possible ones. Story-telling can be illustrated in an interesting and fascinating way- After the subject has been decided upon, let each child decide upon the things he will have in his barnyard. Then permit him to cut free-hand. You will be surprised at the originality that some will show.

Do not infer that the cuttings of all of the different things are to be made at one sitting. Decide upon an animal or object for each lesson, and then have each one cut a number of these and select some of the best ones for mounting. It is not wise to devote too long a period, since the children become tired and possibly their interest will wane.

After enough subjects have been gone over to complete the group the mounting is taken up. Let the children assist in the arrangement. This is favorable to the blackboard, since the children can remain seated while the teacher or one of the pupils does the pasting, and in mounting the silhouette work this is not always possible. Emphasize the point that those objects nearest them appear larger than the ones farther away.

The road and the water in plate 1 were done in crayon. This could be done to a certain extent along with the cuttings.

If so desired, a hen-house could be added to the scene. And that would include coops and additional chickens. The field just beyond the barnyard gate might also be utilized by having a man working the soil with the aid of a team of horses.

As a rule this problem will be of interest to the children long after it has been completed. But remember that it is worth while even tho the interest is only transitory.

2. A STREET SCENE.

This is best worked out on the sand table. It is just a little in advance of the barnyard scene, and may be used to advantage in the second grade, and with some elaboration may be repeated in the third and fourth if necessary.

If no sand table is at hand, one can be readily made by nailing strips of 1 "x4 n to the edges of a table, so that they project three inches above the top, and then sawing the legs so that it will be of a convenient height for the children to work at. Any clean sand can be used. If no sand table can be made, use a large shelf or the top of a table which has been covered with paper.