Studies in religion and theology. The church: in idea and in history

Front matter

STUDIES

IN

RELIGION AND THEOLOGY

Preface

STUDIES '* is to me an old and familiar friend in the title of a book. I remember submitting a question, directly suggested by a first literary project, to a Professor, who later became Principal, in a northern university, viz. : — "What name would he give to a book made up of scientific 2ittempts to conceive and represent formulated ideas, not, indeed, according to their place in a system, but in the isolation which was independence ? " Without hesitation the answer came back : " would call it ' Studies.' " And when years later a kindred question was submitted, a kindred answer was returned. The name was not intended to qualify the ideas interpreted but the attempt at their interpretation ; and was equal to essay ^ in the old sense, better represented by assay than by any other modern term. This does not denote " a written composition shorter and less elaborate than a treatise," but simply an attempt to examine the ideas by their interpretation. And this is the meaning which is attached to the word "Studies."

This book may seem too dogmatic to be fitly characterized by so undogmatic a name. Though I confess that its basis is formed by a collection of scattered papers, yet it has become a treatise on the church. It is held, indeed, that the change has improved the volume, without essentially

1 The sense is better represented by " Assay " than " Essay," which may be compared with the Latin " exagium," the old French " Essai," and Italian " Assaggio."

vii

Vlll PREFACE

changing its character, for it expresses the ideas to which the Mansfield pulpit is dedicated. The two addresses from the Chair of the Congregational Union may be said to deal, respectively , with the church in the first and in the nineteenth century. The paper read at Hanley covers certain points left out in the earlier discussions. The fourth paper, here printed as three, was in its original form an introduction to a jubilee volume, published by the Congregational Union, where it appeared as a discussion of Ecclesiastical Polity and the Religion of Christ. It was not intended here to change the papers, but to put in the notes any changes in the argument made necessary by later discussions and discoveries. This was abandoned, being found impossible of fulfilment.

There is also embodied in the volume " Studies " in the New Testament idea of the church, preceded by one on its main function or worship. This is followed by others on its founders and its making. These are succeeded by others on the teaching of Jesus as the standard of the church's living. In the second of these is embodied a discussion of what Jesus intended His church to be ; and in a third an account of His passion as its foundation. There follow six chapters, three of which are occupied with Paul and three with John, the apostles being taken as specimens of the material Jesus used in building up His church.

I have, for the rest, to confess my obligations to Mr. P. E. Mathison of New College, who has most patiently read and wisely amended much that was faulty in the style, and to my colleague in Mansfield, Mr. T. M. Watt, M.A., who has prepared the table of contents and drawn up the index.

The poem which is published on page vi. has been sent to me by a friend.

Part I PAGE

I. THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IN THE FIRST CENTURY 3-46

1. The inexhaustible significance of Christ shown in the multi-

tude of churches . 3

2. A Free church may be national, but not established . . 4

3. The triumph of the Spirit of Christ hindered by the dis-

loyalty of the churches to His law 5

II

The normative character of the first century for Christian life and thought ; the fascination of Christ for the following centuries .

The ministry of Christ set problems whose grandeur was but dimly disclosed to the apostles

The revolution effected in the religious outlook of humanity by the life and teaching of Jesus— The creative years of the religion, 30 to 90 A. D. .

Ill

1. Jesus and Paul — The central place of Christ in the Pauline

Christology 13

2. The universalism of Christianity 15

3. Christianity denied the sufficiency of the old religions ;

its denials were based on a splendid positivism . . 17 ix

CONTENTS IV

PAGE

1. The grandeur of Christ's aims and the seeming inadequacy

of the men He chose to carry on His work . . -19

2. In Paul the culture of the Grseco-Roman world mingles

with the intense religious convictions of the Hebrew race 22

The Gospel the Apostles preached : the place held by the

Cross 24

" The doctrine of the Cross," though abhorrent to both Jew and Greek, yet the kernel of the Christian message . . 27

The Cross stood as the symbol and manifestation in time of the eternal love and sacrifice of God .... 28

The response in human life and faith to the altered conception of God — The freedom of His sons . , ... 29

VI

1. The circumstances of the age in which Christianity ap-

peared : its deliverance from the limitations of the Jewish faith 32

2. The political condition — The unity of the Roman Empire

—The rights of Roman citizens ..... 32

3. The ancient moral ideals viewed in relation to the moral life

of the first century 34

4. Its attitude to rehgion ; religion socially useful, though

impotent as a moral guide— Gibbon quoted ... 36

1. The heroic task essayed by the early church in its conflict

with the Roman Empire . 39

2. The change effected in man's conception of the universe

and of God . 42

3. The consequent moral and social changes .... 43

4. The secret of their success ; the supreme doctrine was the

doctrine of the Cross 44

CONTENTS XI

II. THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION IN THE NINE- page TEENTH CENTURY . . . . . . . 47-108

I

1. The churches and the ideal of Jesus 47

2. The good and the evil inherited by the churches from the

past 48

3. The progressive nature of the divine ideal in the churches . 49

4. The responsibihty of the churches ; critical attitude of the

modern mind towards traditional beliefs .... 49

II

The aim of the address — to consider the relation of the Christian Religion to our age ...... 50

Religion defined : signifies the action of God — Works in all the churches 51

1. The gradual triumph of the Christian faith in the centuries

following the apostolic age ..... 52

2. The religion of Christ greater than any single ecclesiastical

institution — The moral and spiritual ideals of the City of God not fulfilled in a political society like the Roman church, however great its services to religion may otherwise be . . . . . . . . . -55

3. The revolt of reason and conscience against the political

and sacerdotal ideal of the church : liberty as the true atmosphere for a personal faith 58

4. The effort of rationalism to construct a natural religion as

the "truth " of historical religions ..... 60

5. The continued progress of man depends on the increasing

power of his rehgion — Christian ideal meets and harmonizes with the ideal immanent in the race . . .61

IV

1. Christianity a living faith for the men of to-day . . 64

2. Its problems to-day more complex and radical than ever . 66

XU CONTENTS

V

THE ATTITUDE OF THE AGE TO CHRISTIANITY.

PAGE

1. The religious spirit of to-day active, philanthropic, mis-

sionary 67

2. The modern spirit of philanthropy illustrated and contrasted

with the ethical spirit of the age of Tacitus ... 68

VI The Ideal Of Christianity

1. The attitude of the intellectual classes of our day to the

Christian religion — Agnosticism — ^stheticism . . 72

2. Yet Christianity has ever claimed the finest intellects, and

the eighteenth century can set Leibniz, Butler, and Kant over against sceptical Voltaire. Sadness accompanies loss of faith — e.g. Matthew Arnold 74

3. The attitude of the industrial and labouring classes to reli-

gion — Their estrangement from the churches • - - 77

WHAT SHOULD BE THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHURCHES TO THESE TENDENCIES?

1. The modern intellectual movement may be called a heathen

revival — The terms of its thought naturalistic ... 79

2. Lucretius and the modern naturalistic thinkers compared —

Their theory of the origin of the universe and of religion 82

3. The thought most opposed to Christianity is ancient— philo-

sophical decadence — Renan and Matthew Arnold represent in modern times the critical spirit of Celsus . ' . 84

4. Christian elements in the modern intellect — The struggle

towards a religious interpretation of the world — Reverence and humanity of the modern mind ... 86

1. The conflict of views as regards religion— The appeal to

pietism ignores the character of the problem — Religion

as the admiration of the Altogether Good ... 88

2. The view of nature and man as construed by science . .90

3. The Christian conception of nature and man ... 92

CONTENTS Xm

IX RELIGION AND THE INDUSTRIAL CLASSES

PAGE

1 . Estrangement of these classes owing to lack of interest in

the churches for their welfare — The churches need to translate the principles of Christ into the creation of a new order 95

2. Christianity seeks to create good social conditions for all

men^ — Its attitude to capital and labour .... 97

3. This plea urged upon the church as its duty in doing the

will of Christ ......... 99

X

THE DUTIES AND IDEALS OF THE CHURCHES

1. The responsibility of the churches to Christ . . .100

2. The church that best interprets the religion of Christ will

secure for it the most victorious hfe .... loi

3. Established churches contrasted with Free . . .102

4. Free churches must have a positive note in their creeds . 104

5. The spiritual ancestry of the Christian minister . . . 106

III. THE SACERDOTAL AND THE PURITAN IDEA 109-141

The opposed conceptions of the church reduced to two : the Sacerdotal and the Puritan . . . . .109

I

1. The Congregational polity an outcome of its spiritual prin-

(i) Independency, though far from triumphant in the seventeenth century, was rich in great men and

great ideas 1 1 1

(ii) Political liberty affords opportunity for the exercise

of spiritual principles . . . . . .114

2. The Evangelical revival and English religious thought —

The Anglo-Catholic movement . . . . . .116

XIV CONTENTS

II

THE NEW PURITANISM AND THE NEW SACERDOTALISM

PAGE

1. Differences between Episcopacy and Independency more

fundamental than those expressed in their relationship to

the State ii8

2. The Anglican church is essentially sacerdotal . . . iiq

3. Sacerdotalism, as exemplified in the Anglican church ; its

polity and its clerical orders held to be of divine origin ; the episcopate " necessary not merely to its bene esse^ but to its ^jj-^ " 122

in

1, Such a system viewed as interpreting the mind of our Lord 123

2. Justice must be done, however, to the spirit and inspiration

of the New Sacerdotalism 124

IV

1. The aim of both movements — the new Sacerdotalism and

the new Puritanism — the same, the reconciliation of men to God through Jesus Christ 125

2. But Sacerdotalism {a) limits the universality of Divine Grace,

{b) and conditions the grace of God on imperfect men ; "There is one God, and one Mediator between God and man" . .126

V

1. Sacerdotalism magnifies the church, Puritanism magnifies

God . 12a

2. The channels of God's grace as infinite as His ways . .129

3. The conditions of approach spiritual and ethical, not sen-

suous and formal 131

VI

1. We must endeavour to present Christianity in Christ's

way :

(i) The Christian Society a brotherhood which knew no

priesthood 132

(ii) Its ideal : the churches related to the kingdom as

means to an end 134

2. The chief figures in the early church — Paul's apostleship

due to the direct vocation of God . . . . -135

CONTENTS XV

1. The priesthood of all believers . . . . . . 137

2. Loyalty to a church may be disloyalty to God . . .139

3. Congregationalism must awaken to a sense of its large

mission 140

IV. ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY AND THE RELIGION OF CHRIST . . 142-175

I

1. The ideal of the Congregational polity sketched . .142

2. The terms Congregational and Independent : the N. T.

term iKKK-qcrla . . . . . . . . .144

3. The independence claimed from external control ; the Con-

gregational principle of the sole authority of Christ — Independency means freedom 147

II

Ecclesiastical polities maybe (i) Autocratic, (2) Episcopal, (3) Presbyterian, (4) Communal 151

1. The autocracy may be (a) civil, as in the Russo-Greek

Church, or (/3) ecclesiastical, as in the Roman Catholic Church 151

2. Episcopacy as illustrated in the Roman and the Anglican

Churches 151

3. The Presbyterian poHty — Milton at first a Presbyterian ;

later an Independent 152

4. The " Communal" polity to be further treated of . .155

1. The polity of a church must be judged by the religion in

its purest form, or its ability to realize the ends for which

the religion stands 155

2. Church polities either Monarchical or Republican . .156

IV

1. The contrast of Catholicism with the Christianity of Christ

— His "priesthood" in the Epistle to the Hebrews . 157

2. The Primitive church neither sacerdotal nor organized into

a single body politic 161

XVI CONTENTS

V

PAGE

1. English scholars on the question of the episcopate in the

apostolic age — Hatch's Bampton Lectures and Lightfoot's Essay on The Christian Ministry 162

2, The divine right of episcopacy and historical criticism . 168

VI

1. (a) The moral ideal in Judaism is social, and is intended for

man as man : (/S) the ceremonial law is limited to a class,

the priesthood 170

2. (7) Jesus Himself is the new law for the Christian ; (5) love of

Him the new motive for its fulfilment . . . .173

3. Christian ethics neither legal nor ascetic, but social . -174

V. HOW THE RELIGION OF CHRIST GREW INTO CATHOLICISM 176-204

I

1. The evidence from Clement of Rome as to the place of

" bishops " at Rome and Corinth . . . . .176

2. In the epistles of Ignatius the bishop is the symbol of order,

and in the Clementine homilies he is the depository of theological truth. Both these tendencies unite in Irenaeus . . . 178

II

1. The emphasis of the Ignatian epistles compared with that

in the Pauhne letters 180

2. In the Clementine literature we have the Ebionitic version

of the apostolic history 181

1. Development of Episcopacy more rapid in the East than in

the West 183

2. The gradual hardening of the distinction between K\7ipo%

3. The influence both of Judaism and of Greek religion in the

growth of sacerd>V.al ideas in the church . . .187

CONTENTS XVll

IV

PAGE

1. Tertullian and Cyprian cited as bearing witness to the

change .189

2. The supremacy of Rome passed to the church . . .194

V

1. Is a polity an adequate vehicle of the religion? . . . 195

2. The evolution of the sacerdotal polity affected the church as

the vehicle and exponent of Christ — (a) In doctrine. (/3) In ethics. (7) In the polities of the religion ... 198-201

VI

1. The sacerdotal revolution divorced sacrifice from life . .201

2. The evolution of the sacerdotal polity depraved the social

ideal of Christ 202

I. HOW SECTS HAVE COME OUT OF AN ATTEMPT

TO REVIVE THE RELIGION OF CHRIST . . 205-241

I

THE REFORMATION AS AN ATTEMPT TO RECOVER PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY

1. The Reformation in Geneva and in England contrasted . 205

2. The rise of the Puritans and Separatists in England . . 207

(i) The Puritans believed in the religious functions of

the State , . 208

(ii) The Puritan differed from the Separatist ; the power

of the civil magistrate in religious matters . . 209

3. The differences between Puritan and Anglican as regards —

(a) Polity.

(j3) Ministry

(7) Moral integrity of the church . . , , ,211

II

1. The idea of the church to the Separatist , • . .212

2. Apostolic polity and Apostohc religion . , , .214

Notes — A. Robert Browne and his system . . .216 B. Brownism as opposed to Puritanism . .217

3. The Congregational ideal and the Anglican compared — The

Anglican ideal in Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity . .222 b

XVIU CONTENTS

111 PAGE

1. Independency : its appeal to the conscience and reason . 227

2. Its attitude towards the State 228

3. It denied the lordship of the magistrate over the conscience

— Toleration a rehgious necessity . . . . .231

IV

1. The magistrate not to meddle in matters of conscience,

because Christ is the King and Law-giver— The attitude

of the Fathers shared by the founders of Independency . 233

2. Toleration in England, a creation of Independency — Bacon,

Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Locke cited in defence of Toleration 235

Part II INTRODUCTORY 245-252

I

CHRIST IN THE CHURCH AND IN HISTORY

1. The true attitude towards the N. T. writers . . . 246

2. Interpretation and criticism of the N. T. — The effort of

interpretation justified 247

II

1. Classes of Criticism : (a) Literary, (j8) Historical, (7) Reli-

gious, (5) Doctrinal — Distinction of doctrine and dogma . 249

2. Criticism, as applied to the N. T., brings out religious

significance of the Book 251

L WORSHIP 253-282

I

THE WORSHIP OF GOD AMONG THE JEWS ; THE EIGHTY- FOURTH PSALM

1. The Psalm interpreted : true in idea of the aged David . 254

2. The interpretation emphasizes (i) the emotions which

possess the man, and (ii) the object toward which they

are directed 256

CONTENTS II

1. The Temple differs from the Christian church

2. Religion and Art

3. The Christian congregation an epitome of mankind

XIX

PAGE 258

1. The reciprocal action of God and man needful to true

worship 264

2. The " living God " of Christian worship .... 264

3. Man as a worshipping being ...... 266

4. " Worldliness," as lack of sense of the Eternal Presence,

which worship gives ... . . . . 268

IV

1. Praise and Prayer, as personal and collective

2. Praise an essential element in worship

3. Public prayer must be congregational

270 271 273

1. God's response to human needs .

2. The place of the sermon in the worship of God

3. Preaching and its historical place

4. The influence of the pulpit in Scotch history

5. The meaning of "minister"

275 276 277 279 281

II. JESUS AND THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH 283-305

I

1. Jesus Christ: His obscurity and silence .... 283

2. The distinction between disciples and apostles . . . 285

3. The ministry of Jesus opens full of buoyancy and hope . 286

4. The period of Apostolic education and the Jerusalem

ministry , 287

XX CONTENTS

I I PAGB

1. Why were the disciples of Jesus drawn from the poor and

unlettered? 288

2. No priest became a disciple of Jesus ..... 289

3. The high vocation of the priesthood in the history of Israel 290

4. Priesthood in the time of Jesus ...... 291

5. The irreconcilability of priesthood and apostleship . . 291

1. Contrast between the Sadducees and the Scribes and

2. The Pharisees as interpreters of the Jewish sacred writings 293

3. Jesus and the Pharisees ; the pubhcans and sinners . . 295

IV

1. The sort of men Jesus attracted to Himself . . . 296

2. He shapes the ideals and purposes of the peasants who /

followed Him . . . . . ■ . . . 297 v

3. Types of disciples : account of the Apostles . . . 299

V

1. The character of Peter, disciple and apostle . . .301

2. The John of the Synoptists . 302

3. The Apostles were filled with an enthusiasm for humanity . 304

III. THE MAKING OF THE CHURCH . . . 306-321

I

1. Jesus in Galilee : Pharisaism 306

2. The Pharisaic notion of the Law ...... 307

II

1. The initial condition of discipleship 308

2. Jesus and His contemporaries 308

3. Galilee as the scene of Jesus' early ministry . . . 310

Hi

1. Jesus and His relations to the synagogue . . . .312

2. Jesus honoured by the people, and shuns the scholasticism of

the Synagogue 314