Rural philosophy

Front matter

OR

1 -lit

REFLECTIONS

Preface

1 he following pages owe their birth to a treatise on Solitude, written by the late Dr. Zimmermann, and which, a few years ago, was translated into our language, and received with a considerable degree of popular favour. My first design was to have taken a summary view of this work ; but, on a nearer inspection, it appeared so little capable of a logical analysis, or reducible to any certain principles, that except in a single instance, waving the critique intended, I rather chose to pursue the train of my own reflections.

Zimmermann was undoubtedly a writer of singular endowments ; he possessed great mental sensibility, and a cast of imagination which might be thought sublime ; but does

VI PREFACE.

not seem to have been equally distinguished by force of reason or solidity of judgment. In his philosophy he appears to me superficial, and in his notions of virtue wild and romantic. To justify this censure it may be sufficient to observe, that an author who associates the names of Voltaire and Rousseau with that of the illustrious Bacon, and who regards their writings in common as devoted to the instruction and happiness of mankind*, must have very slender pretensions to the character either of a philosopher or a moralist ; and, when most favourably estimated, can only rank as a grave

sentimentalist.

t

And here let me be permitted a remark or two on the sentimental turn of this age, to which I am persuaded the author now in question is indebted for no small portion

* Ziminermann on Solitude, p. 176, 7. — This reminds me of a minor prophet of the Gallican school, ■who laments that the two former of these great men could not bring themselves to unite for the salvation of the world ! — or words to the same effect, - • ■

PREFACE. VII

of his celebrity. In the former part of the last century, it was usual with writers on moral subjects to insist much on the reason and fitness of things, their several natures and mutual relations, and thence to deduce the laws of moral obligation ; and to have deserted these grounds for the sake of a theory which leaves every one to resolve his duty into his feelings, would have been thought at best extremely un philosophical. How different are the times in which we live ! Now the sentimental system extends its influence to every subject, and is become at once powerful and universal. It has invaded our histories, and even our philosophy 9 and given an air of fiction to them both ; it has made its way into our politics, insomuch that warm and frequent appeals are made to the feelings, by our gravest senators in their gravest delibe Tactions, upon the most important interests of their country; and what is still more, it has cast a sickly hue over our religion and morals, which has greatly tarnished tfeekp beauty, and impaired their authority 3

Vlll PREFACE.

What, then, it may be said, would you deprive men of their natural susceptibility, and convert them into Stoics ! No : for this would be to deprive them of half their virtue. Let them continue to feel, but to feel as they ought ; not as false opinion or corrupt principle may direct, but according to the immutable measures of truth and duty. I am no more disposed to be an advocate for the dry moralist, who can talk of nothing but reason and fitness, and eternal and necessary relations, than for the man of sentiment who mistakes the suggestions of fancy, and the impulses of inordinate passion, for the pure dictates of uncorrupted nature ; and whose boasted philanthropy generally terminates in empty speculations and barren sensibilities.

The following discourse proceeds upon other principles; its foundation is, I trust, so firmly laid in reason and revelation, in the knowledge of God, of ourselves, and of the world, as to be entirely adequate

PREFACE. IX

to bear up the solid superstructure of virtue and happiness.

The occasion which gave rise to it has been already stated ; to which I shall now add a few reasons which may perhaps be thought sufficient to justify, or, at least, to excuse its publication.

That there exists at present amongst us a lamentable want of rural philosophy, or of that wisdqm which teaches, a man at once to enjoy and to improve a life of retirement, is, I think, a point too obvious to be contested. Whence is it else that the country is almost deserted ; that the ancient mansions of our nobility, and gentry, notwithstanding all the attractions of rural beauty, and every elegance of accommodation, can no longer retain their owners, who, at the approach of winter, pour into the metropolis, and even in the. summer months wander to the sea coast, or to some other place of fashionable resort. This unsettled humour in the midst of

X PREFACE,

such advantages, plainly argues much inward disorder, and points £>ut the need as well as the excellency of that discipline, which can inspire a pure taste of nature, furnish occupation in the peaceful labours of husbandry, and, what is nobler still, open the sources of moral and intellectual enjoyment.

It is indeed only in late times that this migratory spirit has been prevalent. Our great grandfathers were content to reside in the country the year round. They were neither led abroad by the course of their education, nor by the amusements and dissipations of fashionable society, which are now arrived to such a pitch of luxurious refinement, that to come within 'the verge of their influence is to lose all power of return to rural simplicity ; unless the mind be happily fortified against the seduction, by a philosophy which can supply both pleasure and employment'* without the aid of artificial life.

PREFACE. XI

The same philosophy will be of no less use to those who meditate a retreat after a course of years spent in public, It will teach them the proper qualifications for such a change, and that, many things besides hounds and horses, murmuring streams and shady groves, sumptuous houses and large estates, are necessary to form a comfortable retirement. Above all, it will direct them to those inward resources, without which every condition of life is inevitably subject to vanity and disappointment. Thus they will be instructed to a cautious procedure, so as not to take leave of the world before they are well prepared to meet all the circumstances of their new situation, lest, after a few years consumed in vacancy and weariness, they should be tempted, like many others, to tread back their steps, and again to mingle in the business or dissipations which they seemed to have entirely relinquished.

It will be likewise of service in the case of those, to whom an interchange of

Xll PREFACE.

business and retirement is preferable to either of them separately, and who wish to combine them both to the greatest advantage.

These are some of the various uses of the philosophy which I have endeavoured to illustrate, and whose importance is such as may apologize for every attempt to recommend it to the public attention,

In estimating the comparative merits of a public and retired life, which is a case that will frequently occur in the ensuing pages, I hare been solicitous to hold the balance with an even hand, to defraud neither scale of its just weights, and to admit none that are false. The reader, it is presumed, will find no attempt at vain panegyric, or unjust disparagement, no fanciful descriptions of rural innocence and felicity, nor any aggravated censures of the business or pursuits of the w r orld. On the contrary, I am willing to hope, that he will perceive through the whole a character of truth and simplicity, a care

PREFACE. Xlll

to exclude all partial affection and rhetorical * declamation, and to make some approach towards the unbiassed and temperate manner of a just philosophical enquiry.

II. I would now particularly address myself to several sorts of readers, in order to obviate certain prejudices, to which I foresee they will be liable in perusing the following reflections.

First, I would offer a word to the admirers of what is usually called classical learning. This, I know, is an idol to which many, even in the present philosophical age, bow down and pay their worship ; and whoever refuses to unite in the same homage is in danger of being taxed, by some one or other, with a kind of literary profaneness, or at least with a degree of ignorant barbarism. As I have ^no mind to incur any mans censure if I can fairly avoid it, I would intreat such a literato to let his indignation abate before he pass

XIV PREFACE.

a definitive sentence ; and - this request may seem the more equitable, as I freely consent, on my part, to abandon to his most severe reprobation, whatever I have advanced upon the classics or classical education, that shall be found in contradiction, either to sound learning, or to common sense : but he must not expect that deference to long custom and inveterate prejudice, which is due exclusively to reason and truth. I am not sensible that I have been deficient in any proper respect to the classics, by which I mean chiefly the heathen poets. I have spoken of them in no harsher terms than some of the gravest heathen philosophers themselves have done, or than are warranted by a much higher authority, namely, that of divine revelation. It is for want of recurring to this infallible standard of truth and excellence, that such extravagant regard has been paid to the productions of pagan writers, which too are now become much less necessary, since we are provided with so many admirable models

PREFACE. XV

of our own, superior to theirs in point of science, and scarce inferior either in point of genius or elegance ; yet we still continue to go down to the Philistines, to sharpen every one his share, and his coulter, and his axe, and his mattock, as if there was no smith in Israel *.

I would next address myself to such as are disposed to exalt the human understanding beyond all due measure, and to make philosophy a rival to religion. Here, as in the former instance, I must beg a truce with prejudice, or, to use a 'softer language, I would desire such persons , srsftsiv, to suspend, agreeably to the true philosophic character, and not t° censure before they have fairly considered what shall be advanced. When this is done, it may appear, that my design is not to depreciate human reason, but only to direct it to those aids and assistances, without which it can never fully discover to us

* See 1 Sam- xiii. 19, <2Q,

XVI PREFACE.

the reality and exigency of our moral situation ; and even were it so far sufficient, would do us little service, unless, at the same time, it could point out some adequate means of relief*. My appeal is not from reason absolutely considered, but from reason warped by prejudice, and darkened by passion, to reason rectified and informed by the light and grace of the Christian dispensation.

In like manner, it may be found that here is no design to decry true philosophy, but rather to vindicate it from the reproach under which it has suffered through some unhappy men, who have abused its name and authority to the most vile and impious purposes; who, by their pretended researches into nature, together with their moral and political

* Pope says very well, in speaking of reason, Ah! if she lend not arms as well as rules, What can she more than tell us we are fools ; Teach us to mourn our nature, not to mend: A sharp accuser, but a helpless friend ! 6

PREFACE. Xvil

disquisitions, have laboured to exclude the Deity from his own world, to subvert the foundations of virtue, to dissolve all the bonds of society, to set the child against his" parent, and the subject against his prince, and thus to abandon mankind to atheism and anarchy. It is against this imposture, under the guise of philosophy, that I would earnestly protest; and against that presuming confidence in our own powers, whence it takes its rise, and to which it is indebted for every step in its progress.

Lastly, there are others of a more pious turn, who, from a sense of what religion has suffered by the abuse of reason and philosophy, consider them as essentially hostile to her interests. Here, while I commend the zeal of these good men, I must dissent from their judgment. It is by the legitimate use of reason that we are naturally led to the discovery *of truth, and no one truth can be hostile to another. Reason, therefore, in its proper

b

XV111 PREFACE.

exercise, can never be in contradiction to revelation, and ought no more to be set at variance with it, than the eye with the telescope through which it descries those objects in the heavens that otherwise would be invisible ; though I allow that the intellectual eye needs a fresh touch from the divine oculist, to enable it to a due discharge of its spiritual office. Again, what is true philosophy but systematic reason, which first by a just analysis arrives at general principles, and then erects upon them noble fabrics of art and science? Such was the philosophy which Bacon introduced, and so happily illustrated : and which has since, by the labours of many eminent men, been productive of great and useful discoveries — a philosophy which, while it humbles, enlarges and elevates the mind, shows its imperfections while it increases its acquisitions. It cannot therefore be too much lamented, that this philosophy has of late times given place to a miserable substitute, which, rejecting that severe induction that is ne- 7

PREFACE. xix

cessary to the establishment of right principles, and proceeding upon gratuitous assumptions, has, as might be expected, built castles in the air. It is this philosophy which is equally adverse to religion and true science, whereas the former is friendly to both ; and he who is not careful to distinguish between them, may come at length to confound the light flippancy of Voltaire, or the grave and impious sophistry of Helvetius, and Diderot, with the wisdom of Bacon, or the science of Newton.

One thing more I would suggest to the serious reader ; which is, not rashly to take offence at words or phrases, though they should not be perfectly theological, when he admits the sense meant to be conveyed by them. This is an evil to which good men are sometimes liable, and which the following considerations I hope may serve to obviate.

Let it first be remarked, that the influence of association extends itself as

XX PREFACE.

powerfully over language, as it does over things or persons. It is this which often reflects an odium on the phraseology of Scripture, by suggesting an idea of enthusiasm, cant, or hypocrisy. The words virtue *, rectitude, reformation, with others of the sa:me family, are of a good sound, and will give no offence to the most gay and thoughtless ; but to talk of grace, holiness, regeneration, is a diction that will not

* This is a word which often occurs in the following discourse ; and to prevent, if possible, all misapprehensions of its meaning, I would here remark, that, when taken generally, it is used to denote piety towards God, as well as benevolence towards men. In this sense it is found in some good writers; and with the same extensive application it may still, as I conceive, be allowed to the Christian moralist, notwithstanding the abuse it has suffered by bad men, who, after they have employed it to express the whole of human duty, have narrowly confined this duty to the offices of social and civil life : an abuse which goes at once to shut all religion out of the world, and in its ultimate tendency to destroyeven that virtue which is pretended; for virtue, though under its most relaxed and contracted form, can never long subsist when separated from piety : a truth to which the experience of all ages has borne testimony, and which has lately been confirmed by a dreadful example,

PREFACE. XXi

always be 'endured, even by those who on the whole are not indisposed to religion. And in such cases it deserves to be considered, whether it may not sometimes be more adviseable to endeavour, by the former mode of expression heightened in its meaning, to elevate and reconcile the mind to the doctrines of revelation, than by the latter probably to do nothing more than provoke disgust or prejudice ; at least, whether .such a liberty may not be permitted to a layman, and in a discourse which is not confined to theological topics. I know that a sacred regard is due to the very language of Scripture, and that a wanton or injudicious departure from it is not the least considerable among those causes, by which Christianity has suffered in its most essential doctrines, and been almost reduced to a system of ethics ; but it ought also on the other hand, to be remembered, that condescension to the infirmities of the weak or the prejudiced is a point of much consequence, and which the Scripture itself strongly enforces both by precept and

XX11 PREFACE.

example. Fully sensible of its importance to the success of the gospel, the apostle Paul not only binds it as a duty upon others, but became himself all things to all men, that by all means he might save some. In his speech no less than in his conduct, to the Jews he became as a Jew, that he might gain the Jews, to them who were without law, as without law, that he might gain them who were without law*. Let any one compare his discourses before Agrippa and the court of Areopagus with those he addressed to the synagogue, and he will find them, both in style and matter, admirably accommodated to the occasion. In the former, there is nothing that would not do honour to the eloquence of Greece or Rome, and in the latter nothing that is not perfectly conformable with the character of a learned Jew, who had sat at . the feet of Gamaliel. And so far as any one partakes of the wisdom and charity of this great apostle, he will be studious of the same pious

* See 1 Cor. ch. 9.

PREFACE. XX111

accommodation to persons and circumstances.

Again : The example of those men who employ every art of human eloquence, and who resort even to the peculiar dialect of scripture, in order to overspread the world with infidelity, vice, and anarchy *, may furnish something towards his apology, who endeavours to improve the language of moralists and philosophers to the support of Scripture doctrines and practices, or, in other words, of religion and virtue, of order and social happiness.

In the last place, I would observe, in general, that a scrupulosity of temper in

# Of this abuse of Scripture expression we have had a remarkable instance in the word regenerate, which some years ago (about the time when the above was written) strangely found its way into our ordinary discourse ; so that instead of plain reformation we heard of nothing but regeneration ; and to regenerate the laws, constitutions, opinions, and manners of society became the magic language which dwelt upon the lips of every modern reformado.

XXIV PREFACE.

the use of any lawful means to promote the spiritual or temporal welfare of mankind, receives no countenance either from reason or revelation, or from the conduct of the best and wisest men. And when to this we add the zeal and diligence with which bad men (and eminently at the present period) practise every device to spread universal mischief, who shall deny that it is allowable for every good man, nay, still more, that it is his duty, by every fair and practicable method, to diffuse good ; and when it is rejected in one form, to try whether it may not find entertainment in another?

What is here said may perhaps be thought enough to justify any liberty I have taken in the use of language ; if not, I must comfort myself in the reflection that ,my endeavour has been, without any fond regard to particular words or phrases, or any other partiality whatever, to speak up honestly to the reality of things, and to convey important truth with evidence and impression. And this effect, it is hoped, will not entirely be

PREFACE. * XXV

wanting, at least to those who shall attend seriously and intelligently to what shall be offered. It is to such prepared readers, whose minds are well disposed towards religion, and at the same time somewhat opened by education, that this small rural labour is chiefly addressed ; and should it in any degree be of use to establish their principles, or to direct their enquiries, more true satisfaction would thence result to the writer, than if he had furnished out a volume of mere curiosity or amusement to the public at large.

To the first part it was intended to have subjoined a section on human science and literature. This, however, it was afterwards thought proper to omit, as occasions would arise in the following parts for as many strictures of this nature as would sufficiently answer my purpose; which was, to" consider human learning simply in its relation to* virtue and happiness.

In treating of the knowledge of God, I have waved all merely metaphysical disqui-

XXVI PREFACE.

sition, and confined myself to that view of the subject which to us is most important. To know what God is in himself, or in his own absolute being and perfections, is beyond all human or angelic understanding; and he who thus curiously pries into his majesty is in danger to be overwhelmed with the glory*. To know what he is to us in the relation of a holy and righteous ruler, and gracious benefactor, is put within the reach of our discovery ; and, to those who are brought to a proper sense of their moral situation, is a knowledge both cheering and salutary. And I have the rather insisted upon this topic, because it is usual with men, either to entertain ideas of divine goodness which are derogatory to perfect holiness and justice, or to exalt these latter attributes, taken in conjunction with absolute sovereignty, to the prejudice of that mercy which is revealed in Scripture, and is also not obscurely indicated in nature and providence ; a proceeding which tends, in the one case,

PREFACE. XXvii

to inspire the mind with presumption, and in the other to sink it in despondence ; and nothing can be of more importance than to guard equally against both these extremes.

Upon every other topic, in the progress of the work, more regard has been had to use than to theory, to what is just and applicable to human conduct, than to researches that might seem profound or scientific; which the equitable reader, it is presumed, will neither ascribe to the writer's entire incapacity for such enquiries, nor to his want of liberal curiosity. Perhaps, like many others, he may in the former part of life, have indulged sufficiently to mere speculation ; but this, as years advanced, he has found less attractive, and has gradually been led to view things not so much in their abstract nature as in their moral and practical tendencies ; and to induce the same disposition in others constitutes one principal end of the present wor^. Of its execution, indeed, he entertains, as is fit, a very moderate opinion ; of its principles he has no such dif-

XXV111 PREFACE.

fidence ; nor can he hesitate to assert, that, were they generally admitted, the most important advantages would thence result both to public and private life ; men would find out their proper place in the general system, and learn to conduct themselves in this world in a manner becoming the candidates for a better.

The above prefatory remarks may be sufficient to show the nature and scope of those which follow. The whole is now committed to the candour of the reader, but, above all, to that divine blessing, which can prosper the meanest endeavours, and without which the greatest and ablest must prove abortive.

CONTENTS-

Part I. Reflections On Knowledge

PAGE

Sect. 1. — On the Knowledge of God ; particularly in his Justice and Benignity towards Man. c 2. This Knowledge unattainable in any satisfactory Degree without the Light of Revelation. 3. To be sought by Study

and Prayer in Conjunction ]..38

Sect. II. — On the Knowledge of Ourselves 39-86 Sect. III. — On the Knowledge of the World 87..115

Part II. Reflections On Virtue

Sect. I.— -In which it is considered how far Retirement is favourable to Virtue, from its Tendency to weaken the Impression of the World 117..131

Sect. II. — Containing some Observations on those Means, which tend by a more direct

XXX CONTENTS.

PAGE

and positive Influence, to the Promotion of

Sect. III. — On some Evils particularly incident to a retired Life, and which are contrary, or at least unfavourable to Virtue : with a few Hints respecting their Remedies 208. .237

Part III. Reflections On Happiness

Sect. I. — On the Happiness arising from the Independence, the agricultural Pursuits, the Diversions, and Scenery, of a Country Life 239.-258

Sect. II. — The Pleasures of a literary Retirement •. . . . 259.-285

Sect. III. — The Pleasures of a devotional

Retirement considered 286?.303

Part IV

IN WHICH A COMMON OBJECTION AGAINST A LIFE OF RETIRE- MENT, NAMELY, THAT IT DESTROYS OR DIMINISHES USEFUL- NESS, IS PARTICULARLY CONSIDERED.

Sect. I. — Containing some Remarks on the Utility arising from Public Station . . 305„323

CONTENTS. XXXI

PAGE

Sect. II. — A retired Life considered in respect to Utility ......... 324..340

Sect. III. — The Utility of Monasteries considered 341. .351

Conclusion. — In which it is considered, how far the Principles of the foregoing Discourse may be of Use to guide us in the Choice of Life 353..3SS

RURAL PHILOSOPHY.

Section I

On the Knozvledge of God ; particularly in his Justice and Benignity towards Man. II. This Knozvledgq unattainable in any satisfactory Degree, without tile Light of Revelation. III. To be sought by Study and Prayer in Conjunction.

It is remarked by Wollaston, that truth is the offspring of silence, of unbroken meditations, and of thoughts often revised and corrected. This observation, though it holds in respect to human knowledge in general* is peculiarly applicable to some of its higher branches. To investigate the more abstruse properties of number and figure, or to explore the secrets of nature* a man must exchange the tumultuous scenes of business,

B

£ Oil the Knowledge of God. [part i.

and the giddy circles of dissipation, for the calm and recollection of a studious retirement. Or if he would examine into the powers and faculties of his own mind, and curiously trace its operations, he will find it still more necessary to withdraw from the noise and bustle of life, and to make his court to silence and solitude.

If then an abstraction from the busy multitude be a needful preliminary in order successfully to investigate the laws of quantity, the properties of matter, or the operations of our own minds, objects which lie in some measure within the reach of our senses or consciousness ; it would be highly irrational to suppose it less requisite, when we would trace His being and perfections who dwelleth in light inaccessible, whose nature is transcendent, and whose attributes are infinite.

Yet this reasoning, however cogent and irresistible it appears, will, it may be feared, have little influence upon some who, though they would not expect to become sect, i.] On the Knozdedge of God. 3

profound metaphysicians, or learned in natural science, without frequent intervals of retired study, will vainly pretend to a sufficient knowledge of the great Author of nature, though they have never employed any stated portion of their time for its attainment; or at most have never gone beyond a formal appearance once in seven days, in some church, or other place of religious resort, merely from a sense of decorum, or in conformity to the custom of those around them.

This conceit of native and unacquired mental endowments may, in some cases, be suffered to pass without muc,h censure. That a poet, for instance, is born such, and not produced by art or study? is an old notion, whose truth it is not worth the while to dispute, as it is of little consequence whether it be true or false. But for a man to imagine himself in possession of the highest wisdom, who has never made any serious efforts to attain it ; to suppose that the knowledge of Qod is with him original and b 2 innate, which to the ancient poet Simonides, in proportion as he urged his enquiries, seemed the more to elude them*, is a presumption equally contrary to reason and experience, and deserves to be branded as the grossest enthusiasm.

The first step to true wisdom is to feel the want of it, and the next is a willingness to bestow the pains which are necessary to obtain it; without these previous dispositions, no outward advantages are sufficient to secure the acquisition. A man, thus unqualified^ may retire into the country, but he will grow no wiser there than he was before in town. If he happen to be a philosopher, he will proceed, in his usual. manner, to amuse himself with the effects, without prosecuting his enquiries to their just issue in the knowledge and adoration of the first cause; if he be a man of activity, he wity. betake himself to his sports or his husbandry ; and if an indolent epicure, he will