The American watchmaker and jeweler; an encyclopedia for the horologist, jeweler, gold and silversmith

Front matter

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I

THE AMERICAN

Preface

FOR some years there has been a demand among the watchmaking and jewelry fraternity of this country, for a book that would furnish them some information in regard to tools of American manufacture, drawings and descriptions of the various escapments, definitions of various words and phrases used in the trade, etc. There are upon the market several very valuable works, compiled by English, French and German authors, but these works are silent in regard to tools and methods distinctively American. Most of these works devote considerable space to the use of the bow lathe, the turns and other devices long ago relegated to the shades of obscurity by the American watchmaker.

The ambitious workman is always in search of knowledge, in search of new ideas, new tools and new methods. Patient study, constant practice and ambition are requisite to become a proficient in any art. The demand for skilled workmen is constantly increasing, and a person wishing to thoroughly master any art, must be to a certain extent capable of self instruction. To be a proficient in any art a man must not be deft of touch alone but the head must also play its part. In America the watchmaker is somewhat differently situated from his European brothers. In the country towns he is often called upon not only to clean and repair watches and clocks, but is often asked to put in order or repair music boxes, fishing reels, musical instruments, sewing machines, electric motors, statuettes, pipes and a variety of other articles too numerous to mention. It would be next to impossible for the ordinary workman to remember all the various instructions, hints, pointers, formulas and recipes which he has read or heard about, and the author believes such persons will welcome this little volume and that it will prove valuable for reference in cases of emergency.

THE AMERICAN

WATCHMAKER AND JEWELER

AN ENCYCLOPEDIA FOR THE HOROLOGIST, JEWELER, GOLD AND SILVERSMITH

ACCELERATION. This term in horology is applied to the steady gaining in the rate of a time-keeper, particularly to be observed in new movements. It is positively known to occur in marine chronometers, watches as a rule not being subjected to tests sufficiently accurate to detect it in them. There is but little doubt that the hairspring is the cause of acceleration. Old movements after being re-sprung some times accelerate, particularly if the overcoil is manipulated too much when timing. Britten declares that there is little doubt that the tendency of springs is to increase slightly in strength for some time after they are subjected to continuous action just as bells are found to alter a little in tone after use. Sometimes the very best chronometers, after going for a year or two, will accelerate by about three to four seconds per day. M.Jacob attributes this acceleration to the fact that chronometers are exposed to heat oftener and for longer periods than to cold, and since the balance is thus more frequently contracted it follows that after a time the segments will not return exactly to their initial positions. There will therefore be necessarily a slight acceleration of the rate.

Dent believed that it was due to the combination of oxygen of the air with the steel hairspring, so that after a time its rigidity is increased.

2 9

ACIDS AND SALTS. 10

M. Villarceau attributed it to the influence of the escapement and that it arises from the fact that the impact communicating the impulse occurs before the balance has arrived at its neutral position.

M. H. Robert attributes it to the fact that the resistance opposed by oil at the pivots of the escape wheel differs from that at the pivots of the balance.

Flat springs do not accelerate as much as those having overcoils. Palladium springs accelerate very much less than hardened steel springs.

ACIDS AND SALTS. Acids and salts of various kinds are employed by the watchmaker and jeweler, but he should never keep them in proximity to his tools or work or he may have cause to regret it some day. It is advisable to keep them in glass-stoppered bottles.

Alum is sometimes used for removing the stains left by soldering in lieu of acids, and is also used in removing broken screws from brass plates by immersing the plates in a strong solution of alum and water, the best results being obtained from a boiling solution, which rapidly converts the steel into rust, while it does not attack the brass plate.

Aqua Fortis or Nitric Acid. This acid, either in a pure or diluted form is a powerful corrosive and will dissolve silver, German silver, nickel, mercury, zinc, copper, brass, lead, steel, or iron. Tin when treated with this acid is reduced to a white powder called metastannic acid, and alloys containing tin when treated with this acid deposit the tin as mentioned above while the other ingredients pass into solution.

Aqua Regia, a mixture of about two parts by weight hydrochloric and one part nitric acid, will dissolve gold, platinum, brass, tin, copper, iron, steel, zinc, nickel and German silver. Neither of the two acids which combined form aqua regia will attack gold or platinum.

Borax is used as a flux in soldering gold, silver, platinum and other metals. It is ordinarily used in the form of a paste which is obtained by rubbing the borax on a slate or stone slab.

ACID BOTTLE.

Hydrochloric Acid will dissolve slowly German silver, nickel, brass, copper, iron, steel, zinc and tin.

Hydrofluoric Acid will dissolve nearly all metals except silver, platinum and lead. It is a dangerous acid to handle unless you are thoroughly acquainted with its nature. It is used for etching on copper, enamel and glass.

Sal-Ammoniac or Chloride of Ammonium is used as a flux in soldering tin and other metals in the form of a paste obtained by combining with sweet oil. It is also used in battery solutions in electro-plating.

ACID BOTTLE. A neat form of acid bottle is shown in Fig. i. The acid is kept in a glass bottle having a twisted glass dropper attached to the cork, and the bottle is kept in a screw-top wooden case, doing away with all chances of breakage and lessening to a minimum the chances of destruction of work, clothes and tools.

ADENDUM CIRCLE. The distance or space between the pitch line of a gear and the circle touching the ends of the teeth.

ADHESION. Adhesion is the mutual attraction which two bodies fig. i. have for one another, as attraction

between the liquid and the substance of the vessel containing it. See also Oil and Capillarity. Saunier says that the working parts in contact with each other should separate by sliding action and not by a sudden drawing assunder in a direction perpendicular to their touching surfaces, as such, an action would involve the inconvenience of variable resistances, depending on the greater or less adhesion or cohesion of these surfaces. The amount of adhesion between clean surfaces is difficult to determine and it is impossible to give its exact proportion. In the case of oiled surfaces the resistance due to adhesion is proportional to the extent of the surfaces in contact.

ADJUSTING ROD. 12

ADJUSTING ROD. A device for testing the pull of the mainspring.

ADJUSTMENT. The manipulation of the balance, its spring and staff, for the purpose of improving the time-keeping qualities of a watch. Three adjustments are usually employed for this purpose, viz. : positions, isochronism and compensation.

Adjustment to Positions. The manipulation of the hairspring and balance so that the movement keeps time in the different positions. In ordinary watches two positions are taken, viz.: pendant up or vertical and dial up or horizontal. In the finer grade of work adjustments are made in the quarters, that is, with 3 up and 9 up. This adjustment is a delicate and often a difficult operation and it is only by constant study and application that the watchmaker can hope for success.* The object of timing or adjusting to positions is to ascertain how far a change of position modifies the compensation and isochronism and to verify the poising of the balance. Saunier says the balance cannot possibly be accurately poised in all positions if the pivots and pivot holes are not perfectly round, and the poising will be modified with a change of temperature if the two arms do not act identically; as will be the case when the metals are not homogeneous, when one or both arms have been strained owing to want of skill on the part of the workman, or careless work, etc. After accurately timing in a vertical position with XII. up, make it go for twelve hours with VI. up and the same number of hours with III. and IX. up. Observe with care both the rates and the amplitude of the arcs and note them down. Assuming the pivots and pivot holes to be perfectly round and in good condition

* Several excellent essays on this subject are in print, among which may be mentioned Modern Horology in Theory and Practice and the Watchmaker's Hand-Book by Claudius Saunier, the Watch and Clockmaker's Hand-Book by F. J. Britten, and Adjustments to Positions, Isochronism and Compensation, published by G. K. Hazlitt & Co., Chicago. Isochronal adjustments are thoroughly reviewed in an excellent little work by Moritz Immisch entitled Prize Essay on the Balance Spring.

13 ADJUSTMENT.

and that the poising of the balance has been previously tested with care by the ordinary means, if the variations in the four positions are slight the poising may be regarded as satisfactory. As a general, but not invariable rule, a loss in one position on the rate observed in the inverse position may be taken to indicate that the weight of the upper part of the balance is excessive when it does not vibrate through an arc of 360 or the lower part if the arcs of motion exceed this amount. Independently of the balance this loss may be occasioned by excessive friction of the pivots due to a too great pressure owing to the calliper being faulty, or to a distortion of the hair-spring causing its center of gravity to lie out of the axis of the balance. If these influences become at all considerable their correction will be beyond the power of the isochronal hair-spring, and indeed it will be impossible to counteract them. Changes in the rate on changing from the vertical to the horizontal position may also arise from the following causes: 1. The action of the escape wheel, which is different according as it tends to raise the balance staff or to force it laterally. 2. A hairspring that starts to one side and so displaces its center of gravity, a balance that is not well poised, pivots or pivot holes that are not perfectly round, faults which although of but little importance in the vertical position of the balance staff become serious when it is horizontal. 3. The more marked portion of the friction of the pivots may take place against substances of different degrees of hardness in the two cases, the end stones being frequently harder than the jewels. Saunier further says that satisfactory results will be obtained in most cases by employing the following methods, either separately or two or more together, according to the results of experiments or the rates, the experience and the judgment of the workman:

1. Flatten slightly the ends of the balance pivots so as to increase their radii of friction; when the watch is lying flat the friction will thus become greater.

2. Let the thickness of the jewel holes be no more than is absolutely necessary. It is sometimes thought sufficient to chamfer the jewel hole so as to reduce the surface on whicn

ADJUSTMENT. 14

friction occurs; but this does not quite meet the case since an appreciable column of oil is maintained against the pivot.

3. Reduce the diameters of the pivots, of course changing the jewel holes. The resistance due to friction, when the watch is vertical, increases rapidly with any increase in the diameters of pivots.

4. Let the hair-spring be accurately centered, or it must usually be so placed that the lateral pull tends to lift the balance when the watch is hanging vertical. In this and the next succeeding case it would sometimes be advantageous to be able to change the point at which it is fixed, but this is seldom possible.

5. Replace the hair-spring by one that is longer or shorter but of the same strength; this is with a view to increase or diminish the lateral pressure in accordance with the explanation given in the last paragraph.

6. Set the escapement so that the strongest impulse corresponds wiih the greatest resistance of the balance.

7. Replace the balance. A balance that is much too heavy renders the timing for positions impossible.

8. Lastly, when these methods are inapplicable or insufficient there only remains the very common practice of throwing the balance out of poise.

Adjustment to Isochronism. The manipulation of the hair-spring so that the long and short arcs of the balance are performed in the same time. The theory of isochronism advanced by Dr. Robert Hooke and more commonly known as Hooke's law, " as the tension so is the force," is an axiom in mechanics with which everybody is, or should be familiar. This law has like nearly all others its exceptions, and it is only partially true as applied to hair-springs of watches; " otherwise," says Glasgow, " every spring would be isochronous." Pierre Le Roy says that there is in every spring of a sufficient extent a certain length where all the vibrations long or short, great or small, are isochronous, and that this length being secured, if you shorten the spring the great vibrations will be quicker than the small ones; if, on the contrary, it is lengthened the small arcs will be performed in less time than the

15 ADJUSTMENT.

great ones. Glasgow says that a hair-spring of whatever form to be isochronous must satisfy the following conditions: Its center of gravity must always be on the axis of the balance, and it must expand and contract in the vibrations concentrically with that axis. When these conditions are secured in a properly made spring it will possess the quality of isochronism, that is, its force will increase in proportion to the tension, and it will not exert any lateral pressure on the pivots.

Britten says, it should be remembered that if the vibrations of a balance are to be isochronous the impulse must be delivered in the middle of its vibration, and that therefore no spring will be satisfacrory if the escapement is defective in this particular.

The recognized authorities conflict considerably in their various theories in regard to adjustment to isochronism and particularly in regard to the length of spring. Immisch says that mere length has nothing to do with isochronism. Glasgow contends that length has everything to do with it and that a spring too short, whatever its form, would make the short arcs of the balance vibration be performed in a less time than the long arcs, and a spring too long would have just the contrary effect. Charles Frodsham advanced the theory that every length of spring has its isochronous point. Britten declares that the length is all important; that a good length of spring for one variety of escapement is entirely unfitted for another variety. Saunier says that the discussion of the question whether short springs are preferable to long ones is a mere waste of time and can result in no good. In horology everything must be relative. Whatever be the escapement under consideration, it requires neither a long nor a short hairspring, but one that is suited to its nature and mode of action, that is to say, the length must bear a definite relation to the extent of the arcs of vibration, etc.

Owing to this conflict of opinion it is advisable that the student read the various arguments set forth in the works referred to above and form his own conclusions.

ADJUSTMENT HEATER. 16

ADJUSTMENT HEATER. The Simpson heater, shown in Fig. 2, will be found invaluable when adjusting

movements to temperature. The variation of temperature in this heater is one and one-half de-" drees in twenty our hours. It is designed to be heated by gas, the cost of heating being but about three cents in twenty-four hours. A small lamp can be used if the watchmaker has no gas at command.

ALCOHOL OR BENZINE CUP.

The watchmaker should keep the alcohol and benzine on FlG - 2 - his bench in a glass

cup having a tight-fitting cover to prevent evaporation and

contamination with dust. It

also adds to the appearance of

his bench and is a great improvement over an old saucer

and bottle. The cup shown in

Fig. 3 has a ground glass cover

or stopper that fits tightly into

the neck of the cup.

ALCOHOL LAMP. The

Clark patent simplicity lamp shown in Fig. 4, is a favorite one with American watchmakers. It has nine facets on the

Fig. 3.

ALCOHOL LAMP.

font that it may readily be adjusted to any required position. The wicks of alcohol lamps should not be too tight and the interior and exterior of the font should be kept free from dirt. The Clark lamp should not be filled more •than one-third full. The wick should be removed when it gets so short that it fails to reach well down into the alcohol.

The Bush Self-Generating Gas Blow-Pipe Lamp, shown in Fig. 5, is divided into two compartments, one for alcohol and Fig. 4. the other for benzine. Fill with alcohol at D and at E fill nearly full with benzine. Light the small burner at D, bring

one of the tubes, A, B or C, to bear on the burner and above it as in cut; blow in rubber tube F and the gas formed by the action of blowing will be ignited. Empty out old benzine occasionally. Where a flame is desired still larger than that afforded by benzine, use gasoline.

This lamp requires no more care than an ordinary lamp.

The great advantage

Fig. 5.

of this 'lamp is that it leaves both hands free to manipulate the work, and that the size of the flame can be instantly regulated to suit the exigences of the case.

ALLOY. 18

ALLOY. A compound of two or more metals. It is usual to melt the less fusible metal first and add the more fusible.

Alloys for Compensation Balances. Breguet used for his compensation balances the following alloy: Silver, two parts, by weight; copper, two parts; zinc, one part. First melt the silver and throw in the zinc, reduced to small pieces, stirring the metals and leaving it on the fire for as short a time as possible to prevent the volatilization of the latter metal; then pour it out and let it get cold. Melt the copper and add the cold alloy, stirring the three together until intimately mixed. Pour out, cut into pieces, and smelt anew to obtain a perfect incorporation. Be careful, however, to leave the alloy as short a time as possible over the fire, because the zinc dissipates easily. This alloy is hard, elastic, very ductile, and quickly smelts in the furnace. It does not stand much hammering.

Alloy for Composition Files. These files, which are frequently used by watchmakers and other metal workers, for grinding and polishing, and the color of which resembles silver, are composed of 8 parts copper, 2 parts tin, 1 part zinc, 1 part lead. They are cast in forms and treated upon the grindstone; the metal is very hard, and therefore worked with difficulty with the file.

Aluminium Alloys. Aluminium is alloyed with many metals, but the most important are those with copper. Lange & Sons have obtained a patent in the United States for an alloy consisting of ninety-five parts of aluminium and five of copper, which is malleable and is used for clock springs. An alloy of ten parts of aluminium and ninety of copper is hard but nevertheless ductile. It takes a high polish and somewhat resembles gold.

Aluminium Bronze. This alloy contains from 6 to 10 per cent, of aluminium, and is prepared by fusing chemicallypure copper with aluminium. The standard bronze in use consists of ninety parts of copper to ten of aluminium. It

19 ALLOY.

gives sharp castings, is easier to work than steel, can be engraved, rolled into sheets or drawn into wire and when exposed to the air suffers less change than cast iron, steel, silver or brass. It can be soldered only with an aluminium alloy.

Aluminium Silver. Aluminium and silver are easily alloyed and these alloys are more easily worked than silver although harder. An alloy of ninety-seven parts aluminium and three of silver is not affected by ammonium hydrosulphide and has a beautiful color. An alloy of ninety-five parts of aluminium and five of silver is white, elastic and hard. It is used for making blades of desert and fruit knives.

Aluminium Gold. One part of aluminium to 99 of gold gives a metal the color of green gold, very hard but not ductile. An alloy of 5 parts of aluminium to 95 parts of gold gives an alloy that is nearly as brittle as glass. An alloy of 10 parts of aluminium to 90 parts of gold is white, crystalline and brittle. An imitation of gold, used as a substitute for the precious metal in cheap jewelry, is made by fusing together 5 to 1 Z A P ar ts of aluminium, 90 to 100 parts of copper and 2^ of gold. The color of this alloy resembles gold so closely as to almost defy detection.

Aluminium Zinc. Alloys of aluminium and zinc are very hard and take a beautiful polish. . An alloy of 97 parts of aluminium and 3 of zinc gives a result that is as white as the pure metal, harder than aluminium and very ductile.

Artificial Gold. A metallic alloy, at present very extensively used in France as a substitute for gold, is composed of: Pure copper, 100 parts; zinc, or preferably tin, 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal-ammoniac, from 3 to 6 parts; quicklime, y^ part; tartar of commerce, 9 parts, are mixed as follows: The copper is first melted, and the magnesia, sal ammoniac, lime and tartar are then added separately and by degrees, in the form of powder; the whole is now briskly stirred for about one-half hour, so as to mix thoroughly, and

ALLOY. 20

then the zinc is added in small grains by throwing it on the surface and stirring until it is entirely fused; the crucible is then covered and fusion maintained for about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed and the alloy ready for coating. It has a fine grain, is malleable, and take a splendid polish. It does not corrode readily, and is an excellent substitute for gold for many purposes. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be restored by a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of zinc, the alloy will be more brilliant.

Bell Metal. An alloy of copper and tin, in proportions varying from 66 to 80 per cent, of copper and the balance tin.

Brass. ' An alloy consisting of about 65 parts of copper to 35 parts of zinc. This proportion is varied according to the uses to which the alloy is to be put. See Bronzing, Plating and Coloring Metals.

Britannia. This alloy as prepared by Koller consists of 85.72 parts of tin, 10.34 of antimony, 0.78 of copper and 2.91 of zinc.

Chrysorine. This alloy is sometimes used for watch cas'es and parts of the movement. In color it closely resembles 18 to 20 carat gold. It does not tarnish when exposed to the air and has a beautiful luster. It consists of 100 parts of copper and 50 of zinc.

Fictitious Silver. No. 1: Silver, 1 oz.; nickel, ioz. 11 dwts.; copper, 2 oz. 9dwts.; or No. 2, silver 3 oz.; nickel, 1 oz. 11 dwts.; copper, 2 oz. 9 dwts.; spelter 10 dwts.

Malleable Brass. A malleable brass is obtained by alloying 33 parts of copper and 25 parts zinc; the copper is first thrown into the pot, which is covered slightly and fused. As soon as the copper is smelted, the zinc, to be free from sulphur, is added, and cast into ingots.

ALLOY.

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ALUMINIUM.

Gold Alloys used by Jewelers.

Color.

Gold.

Silver.

Copper.

Cadmium.

Steel.

Blue

Blue

Gray

Gray..

86 275 125 166 114

67 104 200

42 250 194 146 125 333

Green ._

Green

Green _ _.

Red

Red

Red, Pale

Red, Very

Yellow

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Yellow, Dark

Yellow,Pale

Resembling" Silver. — The following alloys have a close resemblance to silver: Minargent is composed of 100 parts copper; 70 nickel; 1 aluminium and 5 of tungstate of iron. Trabak metal is composed of tin 87.5, nickel 5.5, antimony 5 and bismuth 2. Warne metal is composed of tin 10, bismuth 7, nickel 7 and cobalt 3.

ALUMINIUM. Aluminum is an extremely light metal, rapidly coming into favor in America for all purposes of manufacture. Its weight is only about one-quarter that of silver. Its density is only 25.6. It withstands a very great heat and cools less rapidly than all other metals. It is particularly applicable where lightness combined with strength is desirable, and being extremely ductile, is easily worked. See Alloys.

AMALGAM. A compound of mercury with another metal; as an amalgam of tin.

ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT. The recoil escapements used in most house clocks. A variety of the lever escapement made with a very wide impulse pin, is also known as an anchor escapement. Authorities differ as to the inventor of the anchor escapement. Britten gives the credit of the invention

23 ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT.

to Dr. Hooke, whom he claims invented it in 1675, while Saunier says that the first anchor escapement appears to have been invented in 16S0, by Clement, a London clockmaker.

Glasgow says: This escapement was the first step in the direction of securing isochronism in the vibrations of the pendulum, as it involved a longer pendulum, shorter arcs, a heavier pendulum bob and less motive power. Consequently this combination resulted in the pendulum being less controlled by the escapement, and therefore less influenced by variations in the impulse, although the escapement cannot be considered detached in the sense that a dead-beat one is.

In Clement's escapement, the entrance pallet was convex and the exit pallet concave, and they were afterwards made flat, but in both cases they were found to cut away very fast, owing to the friction when the recoil takes place; to prevent this, they were subsequently made both convex, as shown in the Fig. 6 5 which lessens the angle, and consequently the friction at the recoils.

There are still people, says Britten, who believe the recoil to be a better escapement than the dead beat — mainly because the former requires a greater variation of the driving power to affect the extent of the vibration of the pendulum than the latter does. But the matter is beyond argument; the recoil can be cheaply made, and is a useful escapement, but is unquestionably inferior to the dead beat for time-keeping.

There is no rest or locking for the pallets, but directly the pendulum in its vibration allows a tooth, after giving impulse, to escape from the impulse face of one pallet, the course of the wheel is checked by the impulse face of the other pallet receiving a tooth. The effect of this may be seen on looking at the drawing (Fig. 6), where the pendulum, traveling to the right, has allowed a tooth to fall on the left-hand pallet. The pendulum, however, still continues its swing to the right, and in consequence the pallet pushes the wheel back, thus causing the recoil which gives the name to the escapement. It is only after the pendulum comes to rest and begins its excursion the other way that it gets any assistance from the wheel, and the difference between the forward motion of the wheel and its recoil forms the impulse.