Airships past and present, together with chapters on the use of balloons in connection with meteorology, photography and the carrier pigeon

Preface

The modern application of ballooning to scientific purposes has caused a widespread interest to be taken in the sport, and this has been intensified by the successes which have attended the efforts of Santos Dumont and the brothers Lebaudy in another direction. The present moment, therefore, seems to be suitable for a survey of the development of the art, and, in making this attempt, the author has drawn on a large number of sources that have not hitherto been accessible to the general reader, and has also supplemented the historical outline with the result of many years of practical experience. The following pages contain a rough sketch of the past and present state of the art, and its applications to scientific ends, and further it is hoped that the looker-on may find in them something to help him towards understanding the various problems which are now calling for solution and afford such a fruitful subject for discussion in the daily press. Certain matters have been described in some detail, such, for instance, as balloon photography and the use of the carrier pigeon ; and this has seemed to be desirable, seeing that hitherto no trustworthy information on these subjects has been forthcoming.

Balloon photography has been very carefully studied of late years. The author can lay claim to considerable experience in this department, and has made about eighty ascents, mainly for photographic purposes. He has also had the advantage of Professor Miethe's assistance on many of these occasions, and Lieutenant-Colonel Klussman, who was formerly in command of the Prussian Balloon Corps, has also kindly contributed much valuable information as to the various optical phenomena that arise in balloon photography.

Herr Bernhard Floring, of Barmen, has also been good enough to give the author the benefit of his long experience in the matter vi PREFACE.

of the carrier pigeon. The chapter which deals with this subject contains a good deal of general information, and is not merely confined to the use of carrier pigeons in connection with balloons. The author has for many years devoted himself to the breeding and training of these birds, and feels that the sport deserves every encouragement. It is hoped that something may be done towards increasing its usefulness, seeing that it might be of untold value in time of war ; but it must be admitted that up to the present little has been done on a systematic basis, and it is entirely neglected by most balloonists.

The importance of the scientific application of ballooning entitles it to careful consideration, and such work is here fully discussed. The author had the honour of being elected a member of the international commission which was appointed to consider matters connected with the application of ballooning to scientific ends, and has had the pleasure of working with Professor Assmann and Professor Hergesell, whose work in exploring the upper layers of the atmosphere places them in the front rank of meteorologists.

The flying machine, which includes all devices which aim at the imitation of the flight of birds, is on the other hand rather briefly discussed, inasmuch as from the practical point of view little of real importance has been accomplished in this department. But it is more than probable the future will have surprises in store for us, and that the hopeful views, lately expressed by the Academie des Sciences, will prove to be j ustified in so far as the results which may be expected from work on these lines is concerned.

Generally speaking, it may be said that in the following pages all questions are fully discussed which lend themselves to popular treatment and appear to be of general interest. Many years of experience in connection with balloon clubs, specially those of Straasburg and Berlin, coupled with the outcome of lectures delivered in connection with the Prussian Balloon Corps, lead the author to think that information on many of the points which are here discussed will be of service to those who take interest in these matters.

PREFACE. vii

A certain amount of theoretical investigation was unavoidable, but it has been reduced to the smallest possible limits. There is not enough of it to frighten anybody, and it may further be said in self-defence, if any should be found to complain that there is too little of it, that the author had no intention of writing a technical textbook. It has been his wish that the reader may find amusement and instruction to be pleasantly combined in these pages, and may derive both pleasure and profit from the review of past and present.

Berlin, October, 1906.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

i. the early history of the art 1

ii. the invention of the air balloon 9

Chapter I. The Early History Of The Art

The folklore of almost every race contains some myth, embodying the aspiration of man to add the conquest of the air to that of the sea. Phrixos and Helle flew over the sea, mounted on the ram with the golden fleece. Dsedalus and Icarus attempted flight, but Icarus ventured so near the sun that the wax which fastened the wings to his body was melted, and he fell headlong into the sea.

Passing from myth, to semi-legendary history, we are told that Xerxes received, as a gift from his courtiers, a winged throne, to which were harnessed four tame eagles. Food was held before the hungry birds, and their struggles had the effect of raising the throne from the ground. Somehow or another, Xerxes seems to have survived the start, and our picture shows him sailing quite pleasantly through the air. The philosopher Archytas of Tarentum devised a pigeon, which could raise itself if air were pumped into it, but it soon fell to the ground ; and here we may have an early attempt to construct a " Montgolfiere." The Chinese, to whom the invention of gunpowder has always been credited, possibly made still earlier efforts to imitate flight, but of these little is known, though a French missionary in 1694 states that a balloon was sent up on the day of the coronation of the Emperor Fo-Kien at Pekin in the year 1306.

Mention ought also to be made of the celebrated name of Leonardo da Vinci, who devoted much attention to the study of the problem. Sketches made by him are still in existence, and

A. b

AIESHIPS PAST AND PRESENT.

Its from these it appears that he proposed to mount the rider on a kind of framework, to which devices of the nature of wings were to be attached. The technical details bear witness to the extraordinary aptitude which the artist possessed for dealing with mechanical problems. The arrangement of the bat-like wings is particularly interesting. On their downward movement they were to strike the air over the whole of their surface, but they

were so arranged as to oppose very slight resistance to upward motion, in consequence of the foldingtogether of the various sections. Fauste Veranzio was the first human being who is ever known to have risked his life over the work. In 1 6 1 7 he let himself down from a tower in Venice by means of a very primitive para chute, whi ch consisted of a square framework covered with canvas.

But for many years there were no further imitators of his methods. Proposals of more or less historical interest were, however, made about that time. John Wilkins, Bishop of Chester, constructed a flying machine in 1648, and first drew attention to the enormous force which could be developed by the application of steam. Cyrano de Bergerac developed the original idea of fastening air-bags to his body, and then allowing them to heat in the sun. He supposed that the heated air would have the effect of making him fly, and his muddle-headed notions are very similar to those which bore fruit in the practical hands of Montgolfier.

Francisco de Lana showed great ingenuity in his contrivance

FlG. 1. — The throne of Xerxes drawn through the air by four tame eagles.

THE EAELY HISTOEY OF THE ABT.

of the living ship, and in spite of his mistakes it is impossible not to admire the acuteness of his reasoning. He clearly understood that the air has a definite weight, just like any solid or liquid body, and supposed that at a great height the density of the atmosphere would be less, owing to decrease of barometric pressure. He also clearly understood that all bodies which are lighter than air would rise in the same way that a piece of wood rises from the bottom of a basin of water. Consequently he proposed to make four great metal spheres, which were to be connected together by pieces of wood, and attached by ropes to a boat, fitted with oars and sails in the usual way. He proposed to exhaust the air from the metal spheres by filling them with water through an opening at the top, and then allowing the water to flow away through a tap at the bottom. He assumed that a vacuum would be created if the tap at the bottom were closed at the right moment.

In order to prevent the boat from starting with a sudden jerk it was to be suitably loaded with weights ; the height to which it would rise would then be conveniently regulated either by the admission of air to the spheres, or by throwing overboard some portion of the ballast. His ideas on the theory of the problem were undoubtedly correct, and he carried on a vigorous controversy with those who advanced objections to his proposals. But he came finally to the pious conclusion that he could scarcely hope for the accomplishment of his scheme, seeing that God would prevent such a revolution in human affairs. In the year 1680 Borelli makes some interesting observations with regard to the construction of an artificial

b 2

Fig. 2. — Fauste Veranzio in his parachute.

AIRSHIPS PAST AND PRESENT.

bird in his book " De Motu Animalium," and tried to show that it was impossible for a man to fly by his own unaided efforts. A man was, indeed, much too heavy, at any rate in comparison with birds, neither had he sufficient muscular energy in the parts about the chest ; and further, the weight of any appurtenances to take the place of wings would place him at a still more serious disadvantage. This reminds us of the results published by Helmholtz in 1872, when he was a member of the committee

appointed to examine into aeronautical problems. He there states in the most definite manner that it is extremely improbable that, with the aid of the most perfect mechanism, a man will be able by his own muscular exertion to raise his body into the air and to maintain it in that position.

But Borelli gave a very clear exposition of the law of Archimedes, and considered in consequence that an imitation of the flight of birds was impracticable.

On the other hand he thought that the bladder of a fish was a more hopeful suggestion, but he strongly opposed all schemes which necessitated the creation of a vacuum. In view of the external pressure of the atmosphere, any vacuum apparatus would have to be constructed of metal and must be of great size. Its consequent weight made the whole thing impossible, and arguments of this nature might well be considered by some of the inventors who are still at work on the problem. His conclusions, which were at once thoughtful and clearly expressed, came into the hands of many scientific men and interested them in. the possibility of a solution.

The science of aeronautics may be divided into two parts, of

Fig. 3,

-The flying ship, designed by- Francisco de Lana.

THE EAELY HISTORY OF THE ART. 5

which the one may be called aerostatics, and the other aerodynamics. Aerostatical devices include those in which the load is lifted by filling certain spaces with a gas which is lighter than air, whereas in aerodynamical machines the effect is produced by means of propellers or other arrangements of a similar kind, tending to cause motion through the air. Bartholomaus

Fig. 4. — Photograph of Augsburg, showing the cathedral. Taken from a balloon by A. Biedinger.

Laurenzo de Gusmann constructed an airship in Lisbon in the year 1685 out of a wooden basket covered with paper, and if the facts were true, he would seem to have been the first to work on aerostatical principles. His basket is said to have been filled with hot air, and the apparatus rose from the ground in the presence of the royal Court at Lisbon. But the investigations of Lecornu clearly show that two totally separate experiments have been put together and ascribed to one man. It seems to be a fact that the monk Bartholomaus Laurenzo invented a machine and carried out certain experiments with it, about which nothing is known ; and twenty-five years later, a scientific man, named de Gusmann, announced the construction of a flying machine, with which he proposed to descend from a certain tower in Lisbon. His scheme merely called on his head the derision of the mob, and the French are justified in refusing to allow any special merit to his experiments, and in claiming for Montgolfier the invention of the aerostatic airship.

The monk Galien ought also to be noticed, inasmuch as he may be regarded as the forerunner of the brothers Montgolfier. His book, entitled "L'art de naviguer dans l'air," was published in 1757. He points out that careful investigation should be made into the constitution and properties of the atmosphere, and by experiment it might be found whether the principle of Archimedes was likely to be able to be usefully applied towards the solution of the problem. He concludes that in order to rise from the ground, a ship might be filled with the air found at a considerable height, which would be a thousand times lighter than water, and if one went still higher, would be two thousand times as light. If the force tending to raise the ship were greater than that tending to sink it, it would be possible to lift a weight corresponding to the difference of these forces. Galien made the most careful calculations, according to which his airship was to be as large as the town of Avignon, and to be able to carry 4,000,000 persons and several million packages. It seems marvellous to think that a fantastic scheme of this kind should commend itself to a mind that was fully capable of dealing with theoretical subtleties.

In the meantime, the rival school of thought, which believed in the construction of an airship that should be heavier than the air, had not been without their successes. In 1742 the Marquis de Bacqueville built a flying machine, with which he descended from the window of his mansion, succeeded in crossing the gardens of the Tuileries, and finally landed on the top of a washerwoman's bench in the middle of the Seine. The apparatus acting as a parachute, the descent was very gradual and without accident. However, the axioms laid down by Borelli and Helmholtz still

THE EAKLY HISTORY OF THE ART.

hold true, and progress in the matter of a mere flying machine seems very unlikely. New types of a more promising kind were however invented. The mathematician Paucton suggested the principle of the propeller, which he called a " Pterophore." One propeller was to he on a vertical axis for raising the dead weight, and another on a horizontal axis for any forward or backward movement, a parachute being provided for the descent. The propellers were to be driven by hand, and though nothing came of these proposals, it must be allowed that a definite step had been made on the path, which was to lead to future success on these lines. The Abbe Desforges invented a flying machine, called the " Orthoptere," which was in no way remarkable. On the other hand, mention should be made of the flying car of the aeronaut Blanchard, which in some respects seems to have been on the lines of the modern motor car. As a matter of fact, it was fitted with sails and wings, and moved at a great

rate on the Place Louis XY. and the Champs Ely sees. Still Blanchard never succeeded in raising himself from the ground with his marvellous mechanism, and so fell a ready victim to the wits of the day.

Karl Eriedrich Meerwein was architect to the Grand Duke of Baden, and managed to construct a flying machine, which gave proof of a very accurate knowledge of the laws of air-resistance. In order to sustain the weight of a man, he calculated that an exposed surface of 130 square feet would be sufficient, and this is indeed a wonderfully good approximation to the truth. He suggested that serious accidents would probably be avoided if experiments were made at sea and not on land, and if this idea had been adopted by Lilienthal, Pilcher and others, they would doubtless have escaped their untimely ends. But of late years

Fig. 5. — Meerweirfs flying machine. From Moedebeck's " Pocket Book for Balloonists."'

8 AIBSHIPS PAST AND PEE SENT.

something has been done in this way. Zeppelin on the Bodensee and Langley on the Potomac have helped to lessen the danger attaching to experimental work of this kind.

It may be of interest to examine the construction of a flying machine, worked by a propeller, which was shown by the Frenchmen Launoy and Bienvenu to a committee of the Academie des Sciences in 1784. A wooden bow was pierced at its centre, and through the hole thus made there was passed a spindle which carried at either end some birds' feathers, so arranged as to serve the purpose of a propeller. The string of the bow was wound several times round the spindle, and the apparatus was intended to start in a vertical position. The pull of the bow on the cord tended to rotate the spindle and put the two propellers in motion. The feathers, which were arranged at an angle, drove the air downwards, and the little model, weighing about 3 oz., flew up to the ceiling. This ingenious device had many imitators, but no great success was achieved owing to lack of suitable motive power. In 1870 Penaud replaced the bow by strong rubber bands, but without effecting any marked improvement. None the less, these things deserve mention, and smoothed the way for Santos Dumont.

Chapter II. The Invention Of The Aie Balloon

We now reach the history of a second attempt which has been made to deprive the French of the laurels attaching to the invention of the air balloon. In 1776 Cavendish discovered hydrogen, and showed that it was much lighter than air. Dr. Black later asserted that in 1777 or 1778 he discussed with his friends the possibility of filling certain spaces with hydrogen, and, by a proper design of the dimensions, he hoped to raise a body in the air. He consequently considered himself to be the inventor of the air balloon. But it is only fair to point out that he made no attempt of any sort on a practical scale. Leo Cavallo did indeed blow soap bubbles filled with hydrogen, and also experimented with rubber solution, varnishes and oils ; he noticed that such soap bubbles moved much faster than usual. He then tried to fill bladders and small bags made of special paper with the gas ; but it immediately escaped through the pores. He was on the point of trying goldbeaters' skin, when he was anticipated by the brothers Montgolfier.

Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier were sons of a rich papermaker in Annonay, and are undoubtedly the inventors of the aerostatic airship. Naturally enough, tradition reports that the whole thing was due to an accident. One of the brothers is said to have dried his silk coat over the oven and to have noticed that the heated air tended to lift it. But such tales lose much of their force when it is stated that both brothers had long and carefully studied both mathematics and physics, and that numerous improvements introduced by them into the working of the paper factory were ample evidence of practical capacity. Joseph Montgolfier was the first to interest himself in aeronautics, and he is stated to have descended from the roof of his house by means of a parachute in 1771. He occupied his mind with the possibility

AIESHIPS PAST AND PEE SENT.

of mechanical devices as applied to flying machines, and discussed frequently with his brother the various treatises which existed on the subject, and the feasibility of suggestions which had been made. Galien's idea of filling receivers with air drawn from higher levels specially interested them, and the movement of the clouds seemed to justify hopes. Accordingly they passed steam into a receiver, and noticed that the vessel had a tendency to rise in the air. However, the steam soon condensed; they

Fig. 6. — Clouds photographed from a balloon.

therefore repeated their experiment with smoke, which produced the same effect. The smoke escaped through the pores of the paper bag which acted as receiver ; the results were therefore no better than before, and the experiments were temporarily suspended. Priestley's work on the different kinds of " air " was translated into French in 1776, and suggested to them the use of hydrogen. They filled paper bags with hydrogen, which escaped at once through the pores. Their next idea was that the clouds were supported by electrical means. They lighted a fire below their balloon and fed it with wet straw and wool. The first balloon was soon burnt ; but they constructed another

THE INVENTION OF THE AIE BALLOON.

which held 700 cubic feet and rose to a height of 1,000 Jit. Gradually they carried out their experiments on a larger scale, and the first public exhibition was made on June 5th, 1783. They constructed a paper balloon, 112 ft. in circumference, and filled it with hot air by means of a fire placed below it. The

Fig.

-Ascent of a " Moniffolfiere.

balloon rose in the presence of the astonished spectators to a height of 1,000 ft., but fell to the ground in ten minutes owing to the gradual escape of the hot air.

The Academie des Sciences, which has always turned its searching glance on any mechanical improvement, forthwith invited the brothers Montgolfier to repeat their experiment in Paris. But before they were able to undertake the journey

Paris had become familiar with the sight of a balloon in mid-air. Professor Faujas de Saint-Fond started a subscription list for the purpose of raising funds, and the physicist Charles was entrusted with the practical work. Charles was familiar with the properties of hydrogen from his laboratory work, and saw at once that the lightness of the heated air had caused Montgolfier's balloon to rise. He therefore concluded that the use of hydrogen would constitute a still further improvement, and would have the obvious advantage of decreasing the size of the receiver owing to its greater buoyancy. He also knew that hydrogen escaped much more easily than air through the pores of the envelope, and consequently well understood the necessity of making the silk covering thoroughly airtight. The brothers Eobert, who had succeeded in dissolving rubber, were able to provide him with an excellent medium for coating his balloon, and it is interesting to note that even at the present day no better covering is known for the purpose. Hydrogen was prepared from sulphuric acid and iron turnings. But notwithstanding the apparent simplicity of the arrangements, it took four days to fill a balloon, 13 ft. in diameter, and required half a ton of iron and a quarter of a ton of sulphuric acid. The booming of cannon on August 29th, 1783, announced to the Parisians the impending flight of the balloon. In spite of heavy rain, 300,000 spectators collected in the Champs de Mars, and so great was the enthusiasm that silks and satins were completely forgotten till the balloon had made a start. It weighed rather less than 20 lbs., and speedily rose in the air, disappearing in the clouds. After a short time it was seen again at a great height, but appeared to be ruptured, presumably owing to its having been too strongly inflated. The treatment it received on reaching the ground in the neighbourhood of Paris was amusing. The peasants saw it falling from the clouds, and ascribed its presence to the agency of the devil. They therefore attacked it with rakes and hoes and anything else that was handy. It was finally fastened to the tail of a horse, and dragged about, trailing on the ground, till nothing was left. The Government therefore thought it necessary to acquaint the rustic mind with the nature of the new invention, and to request better treatment for it in future.

THE INVENTION OF THE AIR BALLOON. IB

In the meantime, Montgolfier had reached Paris, and under the auspices of the Academie des Sciences, constructed a linen balloon of curious shape. The middle portion was cylindrical, being 42 ft. in diameter, and 26 ft. in height ; above this there was a conical portion, 30 ft. high, and at the bottom the cylinder was closed by a similar conical piece, 20 ft. in length. The framework was covered with paper, both on the inside and outside. The balloon presented a magnificent appearance, and was decorated with gold on a background of blue. But the Fates were against the inventor. A heavy rainstorm loosened the paper from the linen; the linen in its tarn was torn at the seams ; and finally, a strong wind completed in twenty-four hours the entire destruction of the work of many months. Montgolfier at once constructed a new spherical balloon, having a capacity of 52,000 cubic feet, out of waterproof linen, and made an ascent in the courtyard of the palace at Versailles on September 19th. The car attached to the balloon took up three passengers in the form of a sheep, a cock, and a duck. The apparatus came to earth eight minutes after the start, the descent being caused by a rent at the top, which was probably made during inflation. The duck and sheep were just as lively as they were before the start ; but the cock appeared to have suffered some injury, which was ascribed by the learned to the effects of the rarefied atmosphere, whereas it was later clearly shown to have been due to the fact that it had been trodden on by the sheep.

The brothers Montgolfier were everywhere received with the greatest enthusiasm. The King conferred the Order of St. Michael on Stephen, and a pension of £'40 on Joseph, while their father received a patent of nobility with the motto, " Sic itur ad astra." The Academie des Sciences also conferred honours on them, in addition to a prize of money, which had been set apart for distinction in the arts and sciences. Both were made members of the Legion of Honour, and a deputation of scientific men, headed by Faujas de Saint-Fond, presented Stephen with a gold medal, which had been struck in honour of his achievements.

CHAPTER, III.

MONTGOLFIERES, CHARLIERES, AND ROZIERES.

The enthusiasm in Paris was great, and people amused themselves with the manufacture of small balloons on the Montgolfier pattern. Baron de Beaumanoir was the first to construct them of goldbeater's skin, a method which has since found favour in the English army. The diameter of his balloon was 18 in., and it was filled with hydrogen. The small skins, which measure about 30 in. by 10 in., are very suitable for the purpose, being light and airtight. Still, it must be admitted that it is a costly form of construction. Naturally enough many doubted whether anything likely to be really profitable to humanity would result. Benjamin Franklin, who was present at one of these ascents, was asked by a man what was the use of it all, and replied by asking " What's the use of a baby ? " Similar questions are often asked about dirigible balloons, but the enthusiasm of the inventor is not easily damped.

Stephen Montgolfier proceeded to build a new balloon, intended to carry passengers. It was therefore much bigger than its predecessor ; its height was 85 ft., and its diameter 50 ft., the capacity being 100,000 cubic feet. The exterior was highly decorated, and the car, intended to hold the passengers, was suspended below. The balloon was filled through a short cylindrical opening, constructed of linen ; beneath this a pan was suspended on which the fire was lighted. Pilatre de Bozier was the first to ascend in a captive balloon ; this he accomplished on October 15th, 1783, when he rose to a height of 80 ft. His presence of mind was shown on an occasion when the balloon was blown against a tree at a considerable height ; by diligent stoking of the fire he caused it to rise above the tree and so free itself from the entanglement. In the same year Bozier undertook the first expedition in a free balloon with the Marquis

MONTGOLFIEKES, CHABLIERES, AND ROZIERES. 15

d'Arlandes as a companion. It was only with great difficulty that the King was persuaded to give his permission, as it had been intended to experiment on two criminals who were condemned to death, and their lives were to have been spared if they succeeded in reaching the ground in safety. The King, however, finally gave his consent, and on November 21st, 1783, Pilatre de Eozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes made a journey lasting twenty-five minutes. They came safely to the ground, but the balloon immediately collapsed, and Rozier was almost