Hygiene of the brain and nerves and the cure of nervousness

Front matter

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M.L.mLBROOK.M.D, shelf

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Part I

CHAPTER. PAGE.

I. The Brain 7

II. The Spinal Cord 17

III. The Cranial and Spinal Nerves 22

IV. The Sympathetic Nervous System 29

Y. How the Nerves Act 34

VI. Has Nervous Activity Any Limit ? 41

VII. Nervous Exhaustion -. 46

VIII. How to Cure Nervousness 53

IX. The Cure of Nervousness — Continued 64

X. Value of a Large Supply of Food in

Nervous Disorders 74

XI. Important Questions Answered 88

XII. What our Thinkers and Scientists Say ; 118

COMPOSED OF QUOTATIONS ON THE FOL- LOWING SUBJECTS :

Expectant Attention — Wm. B. Carpenter, M.D.,

Normally Developed Brains— EH. Clarke, M.B. 120 Alcohol Enfeebles the Reason — Benjamin W.

Richardson, M.B., F.M.S 120

Women and Brain Labor — Frances Power Coooe. 121 Difference between Man's and Woman's Brain

Rejuvenating Power of Sleep — J. B. Black, }f.B. 125 Physiological Effects of Excessive Brain Labor

— Wm. A. Hammond, M.B 126

Training Both Sides of the Brain — Br. Seguin. . 127 Amount of Blood Necessary to Mental Vigor —

Alexander Bain, LL.B 129

Take Care of Your Health — John Tyndall,

Neuter Verbs — ArcliMshop Whately 131

Exercising the Brain — Lionel John Beale, 31. B.

iv Contents.

page".

' How Chancellor Kent was Educated — Chancels

lor Kent 134*

Origin of Abuse of the Mind — RobH Macintosh.. 135

Intellect Not All— Dr. Brown-Sequard ; 137

Early Mental Culture a Mistake — Amariah*

Brigham, M.D I . , 138

Walter Scott's Boyhood — Harriet Martineau 140

A Wise Thought from Herbert Spencer 141

Hot-House Brains — R. R. Bowker 144

Book - Gluttony and Lesson - Bibbing — T. W.

Huxley, M.D., F.R.S 145

Continued and Varied Activity of the Mind —

Part II

Physical and Intellectual Habits of Distinguished Men and Women, as Described by Themselves for this Work.

LETTERS. PAGE,

I. O. B. Frothingham 151

II. Francis W. Newman 159

III. T. L. Nichols, M.D 166

IV. Joseph Rodes Buchanan, M.D 171

V. Gerrit Smith (Written by his daughter). . 179

VI. Thomas Wentworth Higginson 182

VII. Norton S. Townshend, M.D 184

VIII. Edward Baltzer 190

IX. Wm. Lloyd Garrison 194

X. A. Bronson Alcott 195

XL S. O. Gleason, M.D 198

XII. William E. Dodge 201

XIII. Henry Hyde Lee. . . , 203

XIV. Dio Lewis, M.D 205

XV. Frederic Beecher Perkins 207

XVI. Judge Samuel A. Foot, LL.D 211

XVII. Mark Hopkins 213

XVIII. William Cullen Bryant 214

XIX. William Howitt Y 219

XX. The late Rev. John Todd 236

XXI. The late Rev. Charles Cleveland , . . 244

XXII. W. A., M.D 247

XX11L Sarah J. Hale 250

XXIV. Horace and Mary Mann 251

XXV. Julia E. Smith 254

XXVI. Mary J. Studley, M.D 259

XXVII. Elizabeth Oakes Smith 264

XXVIII. Rebecca B. Gleason, M.D 270

Preface

During a month's sojourn, many years ago, in near proximity to a settlement of Indians, where I had frequent opportunity to observe their habits and mental characteristics, I came to the conclusion that, whatever their defects of development might be, they were certainly not subject to nervousness. There are abundant examples among our own race of people who were " born before nerves were invented." But, on the other hand, the greater strain put on the nervous system by our unnatural methods of culture, and by the sharp conflict which competition compels, has caused a remarkable increase in nervous maladies. A true civilization would seek to prevent them, and that can only be done by a correct knowledge of the functions and uses of the nervous system.

vi Preface.

We ought certainly to understand the use of all the tools which we are obliged to employ. The brain is, in one sense, a tool, employed in the manufacture of thought and emotion. Wisdom would dictate that we should learn how to keep it in the very best condition possible. It has been the aim in preparing this book to give such knowledge as is necessary to do this. It has been gathered from many sources, and put into a form most easily understood. It is to be hoped that it may be serviceable to all who read it.

The numerous letters from some of our thinkers and writers, giving an account of their own physical and intellectual habits, found in Part II, we are sure will be appreciated; and we hereby tender to the writers of the same our hearty thanks for permitting us to give them to the public.

M. L. H.

HYGIENE OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.

PART I.

CHAPTER I. The Brain

There are few persons who do not appreciate the value of sound lungs, a strong heart, a vigorous stomach, muscles that never tire of motion-, and nearly everybody gives some practical attention to the health of these organs; but the nervous system, which presides over all the vital processes of the body, and out of which flow thought, feeling, emotion and will, which make us intelligent creatures, receives too little of our care — is too little guarded from evil influences.

It is to make some slight contribution to the well-being of the brain and nerves that this little book is undertaken. It is true there are those who think that the less we know of ourselves, and the sooner we forget to live by rule, the better ; but this class will soon become obsolete and forgotten. The tendency of modern times is to make the discoveries of science available for human welfare, and what welfare is more important than the perfection of our own bodies, and especially of that part of them most nearly allied to the immortal — the nervous system. The poet. George Herbert, a companion and friend of Lord

Bacon, and perhaps the best of the old devotional poets, in that most exquisite and thoughtful poem, " The Church Porch," says :

" Slight those who say, amidst their sickly healths, Thou liv'st by rule; what doth not so but man? Houses are built by rule, and commonwealths;

Entice the trusty sun, if that you can, From his ecliptic line, beckon the sky — Who lives by rule then keeps good company.

11 Who keeps no guard upon himself is slack, And rots to nothing at the next great thaw! Man is a shop of rules, a well-trussed pack,

Whose every parcel underwrites a law; Love not thyself, nor give thy humors way: God gave them to thee under lock and key."

In order to guard the brain and nerves from injury, and give them that wise care which is essential to right living, we should possess some understanding of the nature, structure and uses of these organs ; and so we will begin by giving a general view of them.

The brain is that large mass of soft, pulpy matter which fills the skull. Every animal whicli has a backbone or spinal column has a brain, with just one exception, and that is an oceanic fish ; but the brains of different animals vary greatly in size. The elephant has the largest brain of any animal — one that sometimes weighs nine or ten pounds. The full-sized whale has a brain weighing about five pounds ; but an elephant's brain only weighs the five hundredth part of the weight of its body, while a man's brain weighs not far from the one thirty-sixth part of his own weight. The brains of birds are larger in proportion to the size of the body than those of men. A canary's is the twentieth of its own weight, and the little blue -headed tit's the twelfth.

The brain of man, however, is of better quality than that of any animal, and weighs on the average forty-eight ounces ; that of woman weighs forty-four ounces. It is separated into three

Fig. 1. — Vertical Section of the Brain. 1. Medulla Oblongata. 4. Cerebellum. 29-34. Cerebrum and its Convolutions.

principal parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata.

THE CEREBRUM.

The cerebrum occupies nearly the entire skull, in fact all except the small portion at the back part of the base of this cavity. Its function is that of thought, feeling, emotion, will, intelligence. It is now certain that there can be no

Cerebrum — Cerebellum. 11

intelligence without brain substance. The oyster and clam are not intelligent — they have no brain ; and in proportion as man's brain is increased in size and developed we have intellectual phenomena. On the other hand, let the brain substance be injured or destroyed, or deficient in quantity or quality, and idiocy, stupidity, ignorance, feebleness, absence of intelligence, lack of will and moral force, become at once apparent. Consciousness is inseparable from the activity of this part of the brain, and though there are many movements in animals after the cerebrum is removed, yet no consciousness is present.

THE CEREBELLUM.

The cerebellum has entirely different work to do from that of the brain proper, and is much smaller in size, weighing only a few ounces, while the cerebrum weighs several pounds. It is separated from the cerebrum by a tough membrane called the tentorium, a process of the dura mater, or lining membrane of the skull. This process which separates the large and small brain is very serviceable, as it forms a bed for the former, and relieves the latter from supporting it.

There has been much written about the functions of the cerebellum, and it is now known that its chief function is the co-ordinating into one movement the entire action of the muscles. This is perhaps best illustrated by a comparison. A skillful dancer or gymnast can combine the actions of his muscles into one beautiful movement of grace and dexterity. The nimble kitten will play, and its movements be wonderfully harmonious. It knows precisely how far to jump for a mouse, and in making the effort all the muscles obey. The monkey and squirrel climb trees with perfect ease, and rarely fall. Their actions illustrate that co-ordination which physiologists say is the function of the cerebellum. On the other hand, the drunken man cannot co-ordinate the movements of his muscles, and so he staggers about. The muscles refuse to obey because the cerebellum has been temporarily paralyzed, and cannot attend to its functions.

The method by which physiologists prove this function, it is true, has some objections, for it consists in removing the cerebellum from such animals as can endure it, more especially from the pigeon and common barnyard cock. The result is, they immediately lose this co-ordinating

The Cerebellum. 13

power and cannot control their muscles, lack stability, and act as a drunkard does.

These experiments cannot be tried on human beings, but there are a few cases in which the cerebellum has become diseased which show that co-ordinating power is its chief function. In those fishes which possess great power of movement the cerebellum is relatively larger than in those of a torpid nature ; and in reptiles we have a very good illustration of the relation between a small cerebellum and that inertness which they manifest. In snakes the cerebellum is small, and though they may at times show considerable muscular force, yet as a rule they are lazy, and prefer to move about no more than is necessary. If poisonous reptiles had a larger cerebellum, they would be much more dangerous creatures than they are at present.

In birds the cerebellum is of large size, in perfect conformity with the varied muscular movements which this class of animals perform. In the mammalia the cerebellum varies greatly in development, yet there is a close correspondence between its size and the amount and variety of muscular movements which the animal can perform. Men with large muscles and great physical power have a large cerebellum, while feeble ones, and those by nature of a delicate constitution, generally possess one of a diminutive size. The same is true of animals. It is said that in the horse or ox trained to hard work the cerebellum is larger than in the one not so trained.

Dr. Ferrier, whose remarkable studies and experiments on the brain by means of electricity have attracted so much attention in the scientific world within a few years, has demonstrated that the cerebellum is the ganglionic center of the motor nerves of the eye — every kind of movement of the eyeballs being proved by him to originate from a particular part of this organ. This helps to explain the very close relation between the guiding power we derive from the eye and the equilibrium of our muscular movements. With what difficulty we maintain our equilibrium when we cannot see ! So, too, the dizziness which comes from turning round rapidly, Dr. Carpenter thinks, is the result of a compression of ocular impressions which prevent the movements of the eye co-ordinating with the general movements of the body.

There may be other functions of the cere-

The Medulla Oblongata. 15

bellum not yet discovered, but as yet no other are known to exist with any certainty.

THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA.

The medulla connects the brain proper with the spinal cord. It is a center of less complex functions than the brain, but more complex than the cord, and intimately connected with essential vital functions. All but four of the cranial nerves are directly connected with its gray centers, and it is the seat of such actions as proceed from these nerves, either singly or combined. The co-ordination of the muscles which produce articulate speech probably have their center here. It is also a center of facial expression, and without doubt the crying of babies is a reflex action of this part. The chief function of the medulla, however, is the co-ordination of respiratory movements. So long as the medulla is intact, the function of respiration goes on with regularity and rhythm, although other parts of the brain may have been destroyed. Destroy this, however, and respiration ceases and instant death ensues. Nearly all know that a blow on the base of the brain destroys life instantly. This is because the medulla has been destroyed and the function of respiration lost. On account of this it has been called " the seat of life," " the vital point," etc. The only animal, so far as we know, that can live after the medulla has been injured is the frog, and this is explained by the fact that it respires partly through the skin.

The medulla is also a source of innervation for the heart, though this organ has centers in its own substance which help to govern its regular movements.

CHAPTER II. The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain outside of the skull into the passage that constitutes a part of that long chain of bones piled one upon the other, and called the spinal column or backbone. It is an easy matter to get a view ot this cord in any animal after the butcher has split the bones with his ax, exposing more or less of it in, it is true, a somewhat fragmentary state to our view ; or it may be dissected out carefully in fishes, birds, or other small creatures, and studied with care. It is a soft, delicate, pulpy mass of gray and white substance, protected from injury by the bony prominences which arch around it in a very wonderful way, inclosing it on all sides in a long cavity, or canal, which is often called the spinal canal, and cerebrospinal axis. The cord is surrounded by an envelope of membranes which support it and the vessels supplying it with blood. The length of the cord is from eighteen to twenty inches, but its weight is very slight, hardly exceeding an ounce and a half. In form it is round, being slightly flattened in certain parts. It extends downward to the first lumbar vertebra. Like the brain, it is divided into two lateral halves. It would be tedious to discuss at great length the anatomy of the cord, which is exceedingly curious, and difficult to be understood without special study in the dissecting-room, which is unnecessary to our object. We will, however, say briefly something about its functions. The anterior lateral half is entirely insensible to irritation, and serves as a conductor of stimulus from the brain to the muscles. Cut this half of the cord, and those parts situated below it lose their power of motion. If the posterior or back part is cut, however, the power of motion is not lost. When the will directs that certain muscles shall act, it sends the order down through this half of the cord, which, if not injured, carries it to the muscles, and they obey. If, however, there be any injury to this half, the connection is severed, and the mandates of the will are not and can not be carried out.

The posterior half of the spinal cord has different functions, perhaps several, although as yet our knowledge is not complete on this subject. It is now certain that if the gray substance of the posterior half of the spinal cord be cut in two, then sensibility of all the parts below this region is completely destroyed, so that they may be cut, pinched and pricked without any sensation. There is no means of communicating intelligence of any pain from the surface to the brain, and so a knowledge of pain cannot exist.

The posterior half of the spinal cord may be cut without in the least destroying sensation. This half of the cord is concerned with the cerebellum in aiding to co-ordinate the movements of the muscles. It is not necessary to go through with all the details of the experiments that lead us to this conclusion. We will mention that the peculiar disease formerly believed to be a form of paralysis, and frequently occurring in patients who have suffered with diphtheria, typhoid fever, and some other diseases, known as locomotor ataxia, in which there is difficulty in co-ordinating muscular action, is the result of lesion of this half of the spinal cord.

We have now three different functions of the spinal cord :

1. The conduction of motary stimulus to the muscles.

2. The conduction of sensation to the brain. 3.' Co-ordinating power.

But we are not through with the functions of the cord. "We know that it is, after all, only an extension of the brain — that it is, like it, composed of gray and white matter, and its gray substance may, to a slight extent, generate nervous energy, and act as a nervous center of motion, and perhaps of sensation. The experiments which have led to this view have been made mainly on frogs which have been decapitated, and which can be made under certain circumstances to jump about, to apparently feel pain, at least to try to brush off with one foot a burning acid applied on the other foot. Similar experiments bring similar results applied to decapitated criminals.

If the spinal cord be injured, the parts below the injury are paralyzed. This happens when any serious accident has broken or displaced the bones of the column which surround and protect the cord. Even a little piece of bone pressing on it cuts off all communication with the brain and the parts below. When a person is paralyzed in this way we say his back is broken. If the injury be in the middle of the back the legs are paralyzed. If at the neck, the whole body is paralyzed.

All along the spinal column nerves branch off that go to every portion of the body.

The spinal cord should not be injured by blows, by jars, as in jumping from a height, by exposura to cold, by violent exercise, or by tight clothing which impedes the circulation of the blood in the parts, and the flow of nervous influence to and from the brain to all parts of the body.

CHAPTER III. The Cranial and Spinal Nerves

There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. Each one of these arises from the spinal cord by two roots; one of these roots is endowed with motor properties — that is to say, it conveys that property to the muscles which gives them the power to contract and move — but the other root has a very different property, for it cannot induce motion, but only the power of feeling and sensation. The root which gives sensation is the larger of the two. Why this is so is difficult to see unless sensation requires more conducting surface than motion. Each of these roots has a ganglion of its own. A ganglion is simply an enlargement of the nerve into a small bulb like shape, and an immediate return to its former size. Just beyond the ganglion the two roots unite into one com-

The Cranial and Spinal Nerves. 23

mon nerve, passing out at the spinal canal by a passage-way through the vertebra. Any one may examine the passage for himself by taking one of the vertebral bones of an animal, and studying it. The two roots after they have united in one possess both motor and sensory power. As soon as a nerve has passed out of the bony cavity that held it in close confinement and gave it protection, it divides into two branches ; one branch is distributed on the front of the body and the other on the back. The branch w T hich supplies the front of the body also supplies the limbs, and is much larger than the other one. These thirty-one pairs of nerves are called the spinal nerves. Eight pairs are given off from the cervical or neck portion of the spinal column, twelve from the dorsal, and five from the lumbar, five from the sacral and one from the coccygeal. The nerves of the cervical region supply the muscles and skin of the neck and arms. The dorsal supply the back, chest and abdomen, and the lumbar nerves supply the lumbar region, and they all have a union with another nervous system not yet mentioned — the sympathetic nerves — which will form the subject of a future chapter.

Besides the spinal nerves there are nine other

24 The Cranial and Spinal Nerves.

pairs which arise directly from the brain itself. These are the cranial nerves and have special functions, which are very different from those of spinal nerves. They are as follows :

The first is called the olfactory nerve. It spreads out in a certain part of the nasal cavity and furnishes the sense of smell.

The second is called the optic nerve. It is of very large size, goes into the eye and expands into the nervous membrane of the eyeball, the retina, where it receives the vibrations of light, conducting them to the brain, where they are transformed into sensations of sight.

The third is called the motor oculi communis, distributed to the muscles of the eyeballs. It is a small nerve and conducts to the muscles of the eyeball stimulus for moving the ball in many ways.

The fourth, or trochlear, is a motor nerve, distributed to a muscle of the eye not supplied by the third pair.

The fifth pair has two roots, a small one supplying the muscles which masticate our food, and a large one the trifacial, or nerve which gives general sensibility to the face. A most tormenting form of neuralgia originates in this nerve.

Further Remarks on Cranial Nerves. 25

The sixth pair supplies another muscle of the eyeball not otherwise provided for.

The seventh pair has two branches, one forming the nerve of hearing, and the other distributed to the muscles of the face.

The eighth pair consists of three branches : the glossopharyngeal, presiding over the sense of taste ; the pneumo gastric, with very extensive distribution, to be spoken of hereafter ; and the spinal accessory, also of extensive distribution.

The ninth pair is the sublingual or motor nerve of the tongue.

FURTHER REMARKS ON THE CRANIAL NERVES.

The third pair of nerves, when healthy and evenly distributed to the eye, gives a wonderful beauty to this organ and its surroundings. If paralyzed or diseased, then the upper eyelid falls, the eyeball becomes immovable, except outwardly, and the pupil of the eye dilates. The third pair animates the eye and its surrounding muscles.

The seventh pair of nerves is of special interest ; one branch going to the ear for the purpose of taking recognition of sound, and the other branch being distributed to the superficial muscles of the face, constituting really the nerve of expres-

26 The Cranial and Spinal Nerves.

sion. We may imagine this nerve when large and active giving wonderful beauty of expression to our faces; and, on the other hand, when inactive, giving a listless, stupid countenance, and when paralyzed giving a fearful distortion of the facial- muscles.

One branch of the eighth pair, the spinal accessory, seems to have an intimate connection with the voice, this becoming weak, hoarse, and perhaps partially lost on division of the nerve.

It also influences swallowing ; for its division prevents the complete close of the glottis, and so food may find its way into the air-passages. A branch of this nerve, which passes to the heart, seems to hold over it an inhibitory power ; perhaps preventing it from too rapid movement. Another external branch of this nerve assists in the control of the respiratory muscles during speaking and singing, so as to make the breathing correspond to the necessary action of the voice.

Perhaps the most interesting of the cranial nerves is the pneumogastric branch of the eighth pair. Its name, pneumogastric, signifies to some extent its distribution, namely, to the stomach and lungs ; but it has branches distributed to the ear, the pharynx, larynx, heart, lungs, stomach,

Further Remarks on Cranial Nerves. 27

liver and abdomen. Its action upon the heart is to hold it to a certain number of pulsations per minute, and if the branch going to the heart is cut this organ begins to beat at a rapid rate. The effect on the lungs is quite the opposite, for by a section of the branch distributed to these organs, the respirations become deep, but infrequent, falling to four in a minute.

The influence of this nerve on the 6tomach is very great; and it seems to furnish it with a stimulus for both the secretion of its gastric juice and for its muscular contractions. When both nerves are divided, digestion ceases almost entirely, and death supervenes. There is little doubt that much of our modern dyspepsia arises from an insufficient supply of nervous stimuli for this organ through the pneumogastric nerve. The cause, however, does not lie in the nerve, which has no power to generate stimuli, but in the brain, which does not generate it in sufficient quantities, or, if it does, gives it to other organs.

The termination of the nerves in any organ is curious and interesting. In muscles they terminate suddenly and at right angles in a muscular fiber. In glands they terminate abruptly in the cells. The influence of the nerves over secretion

28 The Cranial and Spinal JYerves.

is very great and well known. The sensory nerves do not terminate in any organ specially, but in the integument of the skin in filaments.

Nerves are composed mainly of albuminous substances, combined with sulphur and phosphorus, and with a brain fat, also combined with phosphorus; also of a substance resembling starch.

Nervous tissue is regenerated after its partial destruction — that is, if a nerve be divided or removed it grows again slowly, and its function is restored ; and it is now known that where a portion of the brain is destroyed it may grow again. Especially is this true in the case of pigeons, and, no doubt, it is also true in the case of man.

The properties of the nerves of sensation and motion are inherent, and the perfection of their activity depends largely upon a full supply of healthy blood for the nourishing of their substance.

CHAPTEE IV.

The Sympathetic Nervous System.

There are two nervous systems in each individual. They are quite distinct from one another, and yet united by filaments, so that there is an action and reaction from one to the other. The first is the nervous system which we have described, with its center in the brain and spinal cord, and its ramifications in every part of the body. This system is the seat of thought, emotion, sensation, and will. The other is the sympathetic nervous system, and presides over the functions of nutrition, secretion and vegetative life. It has its center in what may be called the abdominal brain, or pair of brains, consisting of large semi-lunar ganglia, one lying on each side of the spinal column in the upper part of the abdominal cavity. A chain extends upward on each side of the spinal column, the whole length of the trunk, into the brain. This chain consists of a cord which swells into ganglia every few inches. From these ganglia nerves are given off which are distributed to all the great internal organs of the body, the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, kidneys, intestines, and especially to the muscular coats of the arteries. It is a striking peculiarity of the sympathetic nervous system that its nerves follow very closely the blood-vessels. Starting from the heart they envelop the arteries in a network of fine interlacing nerves, which follow them in all their ramifications. The semi -lunar ganglia are often called the solar plexus, for the nerves radiate from them in every direction, as the rays from the sun. These radiating nerves control the action of the abdominal organs.

The action of the sympathetic nervous system is not yet thoroughly understood, but, unlike the other nervous system, it is not under the control of the will. It acts in its own peculiar way — is not hampered by the will or interfered with by any caprice of the individual. It cannot think. It can scarcely feel, though experiments show there is slight sensation in it.