Methods in teaching; being the Stockton methods in elementary schools

Front matter

mtliiimiiiiiliiill il

Class _jL.4^^ Book, ,W^

Gop^htN"

Foreword

Among the exhibits at the St. Louis and Portland Expositions was one from the Stockton Schools. It was so arranged as to show in the smallest possible compass as complete a picture of the development of the course of study as could be presented in written form. The work in all bound volumes was shown in the following sequence :

1. A typewritten monograph, or method sheet, treating of the subject illustrated in the volume.

2. The course of study in the subject in printed form.

3. The teacher's daily program.

4. Work from the pupils, showing all the written lessons given in the subject from the first lesson in September to the last lesson in June.

Under this arrangement the methods followed, the course of study to be carried out, the time value of every subject, the results secured, were shown in every volume. There were ninety-two monographs, or method sheets, illustrating fully the methods followed in the different subjects taught. In all cases these monographs were written by the principals or teachers.

These volumes of method sheets, illustrated as they were with the results secured from pupils, met with a generous commendation from the teachers of America. Since the close of the Expositions hundreds of letters have been received asking if the Stockton methods could be secured in

vii

VUl METHODS IN TEACHING

printed form. To meet what seemed to be a real demand, it was decided to issue " The Book of Stockton Methods."

The labor of editing the monographs was committed to Mrs. Rosa V. Winterburn, under whose skillful direction as Supervisor of the Primary and Grammar Schools of Stockton much of the work has been developed. From this proposed editing of teachers' and pupils' work the present more ambitious book has grown, in which are given many experiences and suggestions that were not embodied in the original plan. In the use of the teachers' monographs repetition has been avoided and in many cases the methods have been condensed, but the thought and the wording have been preserved in so far as practicable.

The book does not pretend to be an answer to the question, " What are the best methods of teaching ?" It does seek to show what is being actually done by teachers under working conditions when they strive intelligently to make their methods rational and useful. No claim is made that the methods given in this book are models for others to follow; but it is claimed that they are methods of practice rather than of theory. As such they are submitted to the

teachers of America.

Jas. a. Barr,

City Superintendent of Schools, Stockton, California, June I, 1906.

Preface

"Where no wise guidance is, the people falleth; But in the multitude of counsellors there is safety."

Out of the experiences of many people, tested, retested, and tested again, this book has grown. May there be in it words of help and direction ! In a sense it is a composite, but it is only in the way in which the civilization of today is a composite of what has gone before. No man dare say that he stands alone in his achievements ; preceding ages and contemporaneous efforts have helped place him where he is, no matter how strong within him may be the personal element. So with this book. Superintendent, supervisors, teachers, and pupils, with perhaps an unusual degree of harmony, have worked together over the problems of the schoolroom. Some of the helpful deductions thus made are recorded here.

This is a book of methods rather than of subject matter. Both might well be presented, but to do so would overburden such a publication. While it is true that without subject matter methods are valueless, the supposition is that a man or woman who is admitted today into the schoolroom is fairly well provided with the knowledge requisite for the task. Many teachers fail, however, in handling their equipments; many and many a pupil wastes a large part of his time in school because of the imperfect way in which the subject matter of even a common school education is presented; many parents, eager for the best interests of their children, find themselves bitterly disappointed with the

X PREFACE

product turned out by the schools which have been control- Hng the intellectual development of the children for eight years.

Character, individuality, citizenship, knowledge, industrial ability, general culture, — these have been the desired lines of progress for our schoolrooms. Along them there has been felt a strengthening, intensifying, broadening influence that has been unquestionable in its formative power. It is in the hope of aiding to perpetuate these aims — known and reached out after by all true teachers — that we offer this book to our fellow-workers.

Grateful acknowledgments are extended to Mr. James A. Barr, Superintendent of the Stockton City Schools, for his unfailing help and ready suggestions ; to the teachers, who have kindly permitted the use of extracts from summaries submitted by them of their work and methods; to Mr. Edward Hughes and Mr. S. H. Cohn, who have made possible a greater completeness of treatment by their liberal contributions on nature study and geography; and to Mrs. Alice Smallfield Schneider, whose careful development of the word study is the basis of the thoughts here presented on that subject.

Believing that ordinarily the busy teacher has time for only a few reference books, the lists appended to the subjects are short, containing only some of the books that have been found to contain the most direct help or the most suggestive

guidance.

Rosa V. Winterburn.

Los Angeles, California, May 23, 1906.

Part I. Literature Language Word Study

CHAPTER L

General Thoughts on Literature for Elementary Schools 3

CHAPTER H.

Presentation, Acquisition, and Illustration of Literature IN Primary Grades 9

CHAPTER HL

Presentation, Acquisition, and Illustration of Literature in Grammar Grades 23

CHAPTER IV.

Importance of Language Training for All Pupils . . 48

CHAPTER V.

Oral and Written Language with Primary Grades . . 58

CHAPTER VI.

Oral and Written Language with Grammar Grades . . 78

CHAPTER VII.

Word Study 100

Part II. Arithmetic

CHAPTER VIII.

General Aims: Introductory Thoughts; Summary of the De\^lopment of a Course in Arithmetic . . . .127

xi

Xll CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX. ;

Subject Matter and Methods in Fourth, Fifth, Sixth,

Seventh, and Eighth Grades 145^

1 PART III.

NATURE STUDY GEOGRAPHY |

CHAPTER X. {

Plant Study i73 i

i

CHAPTER XL i

Animal Study: The Aquarium; The Insect Cage; Lessons ON Animals 190

CHAPTER XIL ,

NoN-LiviNG Things 201 J

CHAPTER XIIL I

LITERATURE

Chapter I General Thoughts On Literature For Ele- Mentary Schools

To prepare the child for life is the aim of education. He who knows how to read, and who desires to read valuable and instructive books has gained a great part of his education.

A course in literature for grammar grades should tend to produce in the pupil the desire to read, the ability to understand accurately what is read, a familiarity with books that will result in discrimination in buying or in selecting reading from the shelves of libraries. None of these aims may be actually attained, but as potentialities they are worth striving for long and earnestly.

In this education there are three personal factors: the parent, the teacher, the child. The parent in the home is the mainspring. Where it is possible for Factors ^^"^ ^^ provide suitable books for his child,

to direct his selections, and to encourage acquisitions in various lines of thought, there need be little fear for the future reading. Home impulses and training, when they are real forces, are the strongest influences in a

child's life.

The teacher's place in this scheme of education is most

difficult. He should guide many minds in many directions ;

^ . he should direct the school for the general

Guidance

good of all, and at the same time he should

discover individual strength and preference, for he is training to secure the best results for the race as well as for the individual. To select reading for a number of young people is no light task. Too often only general interest or amusement is considered, and it is forgotten that these should be \ but means toward the end, — life and progress. It is not \, sufficient to encourage reading ; sometimes it must be checked, ^^any pupils read too much instead of too little. Seventh grade boys have been known to draw a library book every other day. Such a condition usually means unwholesome reading and a sieve-like mind. It requires restraint as surely as the sprouting fruit tree needs the pruning knife at the proper season. A child frequently becomes interested in one kind of reading and is prone to refuse all else. An eighth grade boy said that if he had ten dollars to spend for books, he would buy nothing but Henty's stories. This is a perverted taste, for specialization in any subject should be preceded by underlying information on many. General knowledge is imperative for the broad foundation that is most useful for all lines. Moreover, different kinds of reading may open up new possibilities of life work, and may so guide the pupil into a variety of interests, — ^history, travel, science, poems, biography, art, that a breadth of view is acquired that prevents narrowness in later specialization.

LITERATURE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 5

The center of this education is the pupil, who should learn

self-control and self-guidance. He should gradually be led

to make conscious and self-earned advances. The Pupil T , . 1-1 1 •

Let hnn read with unconscious happiness

and interest what has been selected, enjoying with childish abandon story or biography ; but when another choice is made, lead him to consider the opportunity of broadening out into new fields of thought and knowledge as well as exploring more thoroughly the old ones. By this means, he will learn to choose books more judiciously and to lay a more systematic foundation in all subjects.

In the first two grades the stories are told to the children by the teacher. Compared with reading, this method involves some loss of time and literary style ; Presentation ^^^^ ^^ means on the part of the pupils deeper

interest, closer attention, greater concentration, more sympathetic response ; on the part of the teacher it means more careful preparation, through which comes a stronger fellow-feeling in the presentation, and the cultivation of the art of story telling, a power with children. In the third grade stories may be read, although telling is still preferable. A short story should be told as a whole. This is demanded by the natural longing to get to the end, which, fortunately, aids the teacher in cultivating the sense of a complete thought or narrative. In long stories there are natural divisions which should be observed, for young minds retain best a short, connected recital. These breaks do not destroy continuity of thought or interest, for every portion of a well written story has v/ithin itself certain elements of completeness ; on the other hand, long narratives are confusing and tend to weaken continuity of thought. Every part should make a finished little production, so told that the

next division fits on naturally.

Reproduction follows narration. Every member in the

class should feel that he is held responsible for some part in

this exercise ; he should be able to answer Reproduction

questions if he can not tell the whole story.

By dividing the class into small sections, every pupil may be asked for a part, perhaps all, of the reproduction. This is valuable training for little ones, for, added to the growth in English, there is the greater purpose of developing a sense of responsibility. The child comes to understand that here is a duty for him to perform to the best of his ability. He feels that in order to meet this responsibility to his work and to himself he must listen well, remember accurately, and reproduce fluently. A teacher can not develop too early a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction in a self-completed task. Written reproductions can be commenced during the first year, for the children soon take pleasure in forming composite stories for the teacher to write on the board. The children should be conscious of continuity of thought in these exercises. That is, no sentence given by the class should be written anywhere except in its proper place in the development of the story, and the teacher should either tell why it is not used in the place suggested or have the children themselves explain the reason. In making these composite stories many opportunities are found for improvement in sentence structure and for noting vulgar and incorrect idioms for future correction. Frequent reproductions add rapidly to a child's vocabulary and to a correct use of the new words learned ; continuity of thought is strengthened by making complete stories ; there is a gain in self-possession

LITERATURE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 7

by rising and narrating before the class ; clear concepts are formed if care is taken that the dramatic situations are pictured mentally ; the composite productions furnish abundant material for reading lessons, copying exercises, drawing, and spelling.

Narrative drawing by the children is of greatest assistance in forming clear concepts of striking scenes. No matter

how crude the child's illustration may be, his Drawing

ideas are clearer for his efforts to put them

into pictures. The better, more logical drawings that may be put on the boards by the teacher or by older pupils are a help and pleasure to the children, for they aid in fixing the development of the story, consequently, in acquiring continuity of thought.

In teaching a poem, the pictures presented by it should be seen clearly by the pupils before they try to commit to memory. In these first grades the poems are A Po6ni

usually narrative, as in that pleasing little

account of the raindrops :

" Some little drops of water.

Whose home was in the sea, To go upon a journey Once happened to agree.

" They had a cloud for carriage And drove a playful breeze, And over town and country, They rode along at ease.

" But oh, there were so many, That soon the carriage broke, And to the ground came tumbling Those frightened little folk.

" Then through the moss and grasses, They were compelled to roam, Until a brooklet found them And carried them all home."

The description of the home, the journey, the breakdown of the carriage, the run home again, can be made most interesting first in story form. The poem is then welcomed with delight ; difficulties in meanings and constructions vanish ; memorizing is almost without effort. Formal and formative studies on a poem should be kept distinct. While a child's mind is absorbed in the journey of the raindrops in their cloud carriage from the ocean over the land, down the brook, and back home to the sea, it should not be confused and distracted by a search for definitions of " happened " or " agree." If the meaning is understood the enjoyment should be unalloyed ; later, there can be taken up studies of words, constructions, and reproductions, when the mind may find in these more formal studies a pleasure equally as great as that given by the poem itself. Synonyms can be given and used. Five or ten minute drills two or three times a week in word exercises are invaluable, giving surprising results.

The reviews of poems and stories should be tactfully arranged, so that they do not become tedious. By this means,

memory and power are fostered. The dra- Element matic element can be preserved. Simple

acting by the children, even of the stories given early in the first year, is very enjoyable, and it serves to emphasize action and to vivify concepts.

Chapter II

PRESENTATION, ACQUISITION, AND ILLUSTRATION OF LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES

During the year it is possible every month to learn a short poem and to use a folk tale or a Bible story for narration, reproduction, reading lesson, and other drills. Many teachers are able to add a history story occasionally to the month's story material.

A teacher ^ in a first grade gives some of her experiences with the children :

About twenty minutes are taken for telling a new story

to the class. The second day about the same length of time

is taken for questioning the pupils to help

Presentation ^, • . , /- ^

them remember the story, ihis is the nrst

step in reproduction and memorizmg. The third day individual reproduction can begin. At first, one child rarely tells the whole story. The stronger or the older pupils open the way ; one begins, another continues, and so on, until three or four have taken part ; finally, more and more eager little hands are raised, until nearly every child in the two upper divisions can tell the complete story.

Sometimes a little play is made of part of the tale. A tiny maid in her red hood makes a dear " Little Red Riding Hood," on her happy way through the forest to see Grandma; some small boy delights in the hoarse growling that is supposed to belong to

*Mrs. Edna O. James.

lO METHODS IN TEACHING

the part of the old wolf. Cinderella, her gracious fairy godmother, and her wicked step-sisters often converse for the edification of the other babies, who, in their turn, enact Silver Hair and the three bears, Tom Thumb, Dick Whittington, and the other heroes of the fiction dear to children. Fortunately, little ones do not tire quickly of these stories and representations, and ten days or two weeks pass pleasantly in the efforts to reproduce in good language the story that has been listened to with such rapt attention. In the meantime, all unsuspected by the children themselves, much more than the story is being learned. The first problem that teachers of first grades must meet is how to induce the babies before them to forget their shyness and talk about the things that it is desirable the class should be learning. The above exercises accomplish much in this line in addition to all the progress possible in language and general culture ; this is especially true when the stories are acted out. The dramatic instinct, or playing, is in every child ; if it has an opportunity to express itself, it becomes an important factor in self-forgetfulness, one of the first requirements for the happiness of a child in the schoolroom. There now follow formal language lessons, and the formation of a composite story for reading and copying. Toward spring the story of Hiawatha's childhood is taken, preceded by two or three weeks on Indian life. Much illustrative material can be obtained for class use. The children examine everything, ask questions, and are told interesting facts. After a fairly clear child's idea of the Indians has been formed, the poem is begun, and for several weeks the many stories about the little Hiawatha are a source of delight to all. During this

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES II

introductory work one day, at least, is given to Mr. Longfellow and his love for children.

The childhood of Hiawatha is presented in several divisions, some of which are : the cradle, lessons in the sky, the fire-fly, the rainbow. Wherever an opportunity for a science lesson presents itself, it precedes the literature. The fire-fly, for instance, is studied before taking up that part of the poem that tells about it. In this way the pupils understand the references with perfect ease. The story is first presented to the children in prose narrative. After it has been enjoyed, understood, and reproduced, the partial version is read or repeated to the pupils, who learn as much of it as can be remembered without too great an effort. In fact, the greater part of the memorizing is almost unconscious on the part of the pupils. The first grades use from the sixty-fifth to the two hundred and thirty-fifth line, and about one-third of this amount is remembered by the majority of the pupils.

During the year we have taken but a step, it is true, into the wonderland of story ; but if we have created in the children a desire that will lead them toward an enjoyment of the best in literature, have we not done much?

In this year the poems to be memorized are taken from the writings of the Gary sisters, Eugene Field, and Longfellow. They are first presented orally by the teacher, ^ ^"^ who tells the story involved, often using the

Method words of the poet, if they are understood by

the little ones. It is very desirable that the children should form clear-cut mental concepts of the pictures in the poems. To facilitate this, expressive drawings by the children supplement excellently the narratives of the teacher. Oral reproductions follow, some of which are written on the board, as was done in the first grades. A composite story produced in this way by the pupils is copied, thus aiding in the proper use of capitals, punctuation marks, and words, and in correct spelling. The poems are learned as early in the presentation as seems advisable to the teacher, difficult ones being given more time to be thoroughly comprehended. Several stanzas are often almost committed to memory before the teacher is really aware of the fact, simply by using the poet's words and constructions frequently in telling the story, and by encouraging the children to do the same in their reproductions.

During the last half of the year pupils may be permitted to write original reproductions, in which they should be enheartened to advance towards the accuracy of the copied work.

In connection with the poems and sometimes with the stories, a little knowledge may be gained about authors. Field, the Gary sisters, Longfellow, can all be made real characters to the children. Short stories about them are interesting ; something of their lives can be seen in their writings, even by these little folks ; poems that are not in the regular course can be read aloud, several times perhaps, just for enjoyment, general culture, and familiarity with the poet.

The following are thoughts from a second grade teacher : ^

In the second grade about twenty minutes a day are devoted to the literature stories during two weeks of every school month of the year. This time does not include formal

^Mrs. Mae Simms.

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 1 3

language drills, nor does it cover all that is spent in the final writing of the stories. The former belongs to the language lessons, and some time for the composition work is found in the penmanship period. One of the most enjoyable stories for our grade is " Horatius," by Lord Macauley. The portions used are those that are full of life and action, where the story interest carries the child over language difficulties. It is surprising how many stanzas can be understood by the children, who follow with keen delight the preparations

of the enemy against Rome, the flight of the Telling \ 1 . \ ^ -

" Horatius " country people to the city, the desperation of

the " city fathers," and the heroism of Horatius. As this poem is long and is used for both literature and history, it is permitted to run through the month, provided the children show no signs of tiring of it. Usually, from the beginning to the end, the interest never flags, not even in the writing and formal language drills based upon the poem. The primary instructor well knows that in all the teaching in which she is the first source of the material for the class, the inspiration also must come from her, and that the results will be in accordance with the enthusiasm that she can arouse. If the pleasure is deep and sincere, the tongues of the listeners will be unloosed in willing and eager reproductions, and the writing that follows will be no task. When introducing a new story, it is advisable to tell it to the children in the morning while the teacher and the class are at their best. Then let the narrator put into the presentation all her power to make the subject interesting and attractive. Let her strive to so impress the listeners that later mention of the hero or heroine will bring a glow to the cheeks and a sparkle to the eyes. It is a good plan to refer to the story several times during the day after it has been narrated, instead of leaving it untouched until the hour for reproduction. It can be kept fresh in the minds of the children by a question or two or a talk of a few moments, which can be brought in without interference with other lessons.

In the regular period for reproduction members of the class are called upon to tell different episodes, until, after a

_ , . few days, any child can tell the complete

Reproduction ^

story, or the portion of it that has been

given ; or he can take it up at any point and continue it.

Telling the story at home is encouraged, for it gives added

power to be able to make a continuous narrative when there

is no teacher or eager classmate at hand to suggest or to

assist. Pupils who tell the story to parents, brothers, or

sisters, usually show more rapid growth in language and a

better command of the continuous thought of the narrative

than do those who have only the class drill.

About the third day after the introduction of the story the

children are ready to write some part of it. The morning

hour is generally taken for this purpose. A Writing . , ,. . , , 11.^

simple outline is placed upon the board, as :

Rome, hills, gate, river, bridge, Lars Porsenna, soldiers, Horatius. This is to assist in keeping the continuity of thought, a difficult task for children. An outline for this purpose should be made thoughtfully by the teacher. It should be a careful arrangement of successive thoughts in the natural progression of the story, whose relation one to another is self-suggestive to the inexperienced little composers. For twenty or thirty minutes the children write, telling the story in about the form that it has already been

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 1$

given in oral reproductions. To the writers, however, it probably seems like a totally new presentation of the story ; and so it should, for to many of them it will be the first complete reproduction. Care must be taken not to tire the little writers. If at the end of a half hour the papers are not finished, they should be taken up, and the completion of the story left for the next day or for several successive days. The writing must not become burdensome; it should be a pleasure.

To find material for the stories is not so difficult as is often imagined. Children like life and action, and delight in many a story that has been considered adapted only to older pupils. Good, interesting writers in both history and literature furnish abundant material ; still more can be found in periodicals. Children often need more solid intellectual food than is given in many school courses, and they thrive wonderfully upon it.

The following is an original reproduction by a second grade child, written independently after the oral class reproductions. The periods and capitals are well placed. Note how the story interest carries the continuity of thought.

HORATIUS.

Rome was built on seven hills.

Rome had a large wall around it.

Rome had four gates in the wall.

And Rome had a large river and the name of the river was the Tiber river.

And the Romans called it the Father Tiber river.

Horatius was the gate keeper.

A man came to Rome and wanted to be a council men and they did not want him to be and he went off and got an large army of soldiers.

Some men heard that Lars Porsena was getting an army of soldiers.

They went around to the houses and told all the people.

It took them three days and nights.

They got in to Rome and they saw the soldiers.

Horatius and two other men went with him across the bridge.

they killed the first three soldiers.

They killed the next three.

They called Horatius and the two men.

The two men ran across the bridge.

Horatius stayed too long and the bridge fell down and Horatius was alone.

He prayed to the river and he jumped in.

They thought that Horatius would not come out of the river.

But he did come out and the Romans were glad.

In this grade the teacher reads many if not all of the stories and poems, so that the words of the writer become familiar to the children. Easy narration by the teacher, to vivify or to simplify the words of the author, is made supplementary to the reading. The pupils should now be reading many stories for themselves, for they should be appreciating and using the power gained by their knowledge of the mechanics of reading, and they should be learning how to get from books the enjoyment that they have been receiving through the lips of the teacher.

LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES \*J

In composition original reproductions should now supersede composite exercises, the latter being used only for train-

ins: in acquiring: continuity of thought or in Composition .^^ . ^ ^ . , / ? . .

illustratmg some special features of writmg.

For such purposes composite lessons remain valuable for several years. In the original reproductions topics should be given for short papers. If these are chosen from consecutive stages of the story the child will have eventually the complete narrative, a satisfaction to him, and a pleasure to the teacher and the parent. Such papers should be made into a note-book, as in the second grade. The first draft should be the one preserved unless mistakes are very numerous ; and even in this case it is advisable to keep the original as well as the rewritten sheet, in order to stimulate the child to do more careful work on succeeding first efforts. Weakness is being educated when a child is allowed to rewrite frequently. Insist upon clear pictures before the reproduction is attempted. If a child can close his eyes, so as to shut out intrusive externals, and can imagine that he sees Sleepy Hollow, Ichabod Crane, or the wild ride on Gunpowder, he will be able to tell a more concise and vivid story than if the writing is entered upon without the clear mental pictures. The following story of King Midas is an original, uncorrected third grade reproduction :