Beef production

Front matter

TTKftttKBT W. MEHFOED

G!ass_S EM-Z Book_ .VA5&l_

Gopyiight N°.

Part I.— Fattening Cattle For The Market Chapter •• Page

/ I. The Relation of Cattle Feeding to Soil Fertility 9

II. General Considerations in Buying Feeding

Cattle 14

III. The Various Grades of Feeding Cattle Des-

IV. Incidental Expenses in. the Cattle Feeding

Business ; Freight and Commission ; Labor 30

V. Some Business Phases of Cattle Feeding — Relation of Cost of Feeds to Profits; Relation of Initial Weights of Feeding Cattle to Profits on Finished Beef; Relation of Cost Price of Various Grades of Feeding Cattle to Profits . . .37

VI. Wintering Stockers and Feeders . . 46

VII. Getting Cattle on Feed . . . .49

VIII. Feeds used for Fattening Cattle — Their Preparation and Use; Corn; Cottonseed Meal; Ground Linseed Cake or Oil Meal; Oats ; Molasses ; Roughages ; Chaffing Hay and Mingling with Grain . . .53

IX. Baby Beef 76

X. Selecting Cattle for, and the Possibilities of

the Short Feed 82 '

XL Making Christmas Beef . . . .86

XII. Care of Cattle on Feed — Quietness; Number of Times to Feed; Number of Cattle Together; Salting; Dehorning Stockers and Feeders, How and Why . . .92

4 CONTENTS

XIII. Length of the Feeding Period . . 100

XIV. Feeding Cattle for the Home Market . . 102

XV. Kind and Care of Pastures for Beef Production; Fattening Cattle on Grass . . 104

XVI. Hogs in the Feed Lot ... Ill

XVII. Fitting Steers for Exhibition . . .115

XVIII. Advantageous Seasons for Marketing Various Grades of Cattle; Demand for Prime Cattle; Demand for Baby Beef; Demand for Export Cattle other than at Christmas ; Demand for Common Cattle . . .121

XIX. Marketable Condition — When is a Steer Ready for Market; Preparing Cattle for Shipment . . . . . .124

XX. Lice; Mange; Ringworm; Lump-jaw;

Blackleg; Texas Fever . 130

XXL Equipment for Cattle Feeding — Buildings and Shelter ; Feed Bunks ; The Paved Lot, How to Make and Use It; The Self-feeder, How to Make and Use It . . . .143

Part Ii.— Breeding Beef Cattle For The Market

XXII. Breeding for Beef; Selection and Use of Bulls ; Management of the Bull ; Care and Management of the Herd; When to Have Calves Dropped; Age to Breed Heifers; Summer Feeding; Winter Feeding of Beef Breeding Cows 158

XXIII. Cost of Rearing Calves Allowed to Nurse

their Dams 172

XXIV. The Dual Purpose Cow and Beef Production 176

XXV. Skim Milk Calves; How to Raise a Skim

CONTENTS 5

Part Iii.— Elementary Principles Of Stock Feeding

General Discussion; Composition of Food-Stuffs; Digestion and Growth. ..... 186

Compounding of Rations; Feeding Standards for Beef Cattle; Computing a "Balanced Ration" 193

Preface

The magnitude and importance of the production of beef as a factor in American agriculture are not generally appreciated. The presentation of a book devoted solely to a discussion of the problems of the beef producer is an attempt to give adequate recognition to the industry.

In "Beef Production" the attempt is made to present in the most direct manner certain facts of great economic importance to American beef producers. Much of the information given is based upon extensive feeding experiments conducted by the author at the Illinois Experiment Station. The arrangement of matter is designed to suit the demands both of the actual cattle feeder and of the student; to serve both as a ready reference guide — a text adapted to the progressive pedagogic presentation of the subject in the classroom and a treatise conveniently arranged in logical order for the general reader interested in the subject. The writer fully appreciates that the work is not as complete and comprehensive as it might be made; it is presented, however, with the thought that it will contribute to the literature, especially on the economic side, of beef production. It is hoped that it will serve to make beef production more profitable. The writer wishes to gratefully acknowledge the valuable suggestions and assistance given in the preparation of this book by his associate, Mr. L. D. Hall.

HERBERT W. MUMFORD.

Urbana, III., January, 1907.

Chapter I. The Relation Of Cattle Feeding To Soil Fertility

More extensive operations in cattle feeding can consistently be urged upon farmers in general from the standpoint of maintaining or improving the fertility of the soil. It may be argued that other classes of live-stock, horses, sheep, and hogs, may be fed with greater profit. This may be granted where conditions are especially favorable to these interests, but it must be admitted that it is difficult, if not indeed impracticable, to keep sufficient hogs to furnish the desired amount of fertilizer. Then, again, cattle consume certain byproducts of the farm that are difficult to convert into pork or bacon, mutton, or horse flesh. The feeding of cattle with hogs as an adjunct seems a logical solution to the conversion of farm products into cash meat products, furnishing at the same time a valuable machine for the manufacture of farm yard manure. Cattle feeding does not necessarily mean the exclusion of other classes of live stock on the farm.

The animal husbandry department of the Illinois Experiment Station has repeatedly stated in its bulletins that it believes that the manure produced by fattening steers will balance the expense of labor in caring for the cattle. This, we believe, is true, yet such a statement is not sufficiently definite to meet the requirements of this discussion. The writer appreciates how extremely difficult it is to determine the agricultural value of farm yard manure, but there is, fortunately, sufficient data at hand to throw some light on this intricate problem.

Director Charles E. Thorne of the Ohio Station has published the most valuable data concerning the use and value of farm manures of which the writer has knowledge. In this connection the reader's attention is called to Circular 54 of the Ohio Station at Wooster, from which many of the facts used in this paper are quoted. From unpublished records at the Ohio Station, Director Thorne writes me that the average daily production of manure for a thousand pound steer (records secured from weighing the manure from 106 steers for an average period of five months) amounted to forty pounds in one instance and forty-six pounds in the other. Seven pounds of these amounts was straw used for bedding. In other words, the normal production of manure from a thousand pound steer varied from three to four tons for a feeding period of six months. The same authority states that "a ton of average mixed farm manure, as taken from open barn yards, may be expected to contain nine pounds of nitrogen, ten pounds of potassium, and three or four of phosphorus." Professor Thorne states that "when properly cared for and properly balanced, the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in such manure are as effective, pound for pound, as those in the best fertilizing chemicals.' 7 And again: "As the cereal crops approach maturity there is a partial separation of their chemical constituents, the nitrogen and phosphorus accumulating in the grain until about three fourths of that held by the entire plant is found there, while the straw or stover contains the major portion of the potassium. Hence, when the grain is sold it carries away from the farm an undue proportion of

VALUE OF MANURE 11

phosphorus and nitrogen, and there will in time result a deficiency of these elements in the soil as compared with potassium unless the supply of this also is reduced by the selling of hay and straw, or of leafy plants, such as tobacco. If mixed farming be practiced, including the growing and fattening of live stock, most of the potassium will be retained on the farm; but there will still be a heavy loss of phosphorus in that carried away in the bones of animals grown on the farm." It might be added in this latter instance that the older and more mature the animals fed the less will be this loss of phosphorus. This indicates that many soils under average conditions require more phosphorus in proportion to nitrogen and potassium than that contained m manure. In other words, to make farm yard manure well balanced, phosphorus in some form should be added to it. This is done by the use of acid phosphate, steamed bone meal, or finely ground phosphate rock.

MANURE TESTS IN OHIO

At the Ohio Station under Professor Thome's direction tests of farm yard manure have been running for nine years, in which it was used in different rotations, both alone and in combination with some carrier of phosphorus and other elements. Eight tons of manure per acre was the standard application. The average yearly increase per acre of this one application in a three-year rotation of corn, wheat, and clover was for the untreated manure 14.70 bushels of corn and 744 pounds of stovei , a money value of $7, figuring the corn at 40 cents per bushel and the stover at $3 per ton. For the wheat following the corn the increase for the untreated manure was 8.36 bushels of wheat and 897 pounds of straw, representing a money value of $7.58, figuring wheat at 80 cents per bushel and straw at $2 per ton. For the clover following the wheat the increase in yield for the manured plot was at the rate of 686 pounds, representing a money value of $2.74, figuring the hay at $8 per ton.

Summarizing, then, we may say that the application of eight tons of farm yard manure increased the crops of corn, wheat, and clover in rotation representing a money value of $17.32, or $2.17 per ton. This value was determined for yard manure that had lain in the open through the winter. The value of stall manure that had been kept under cover during the time it was accumulating until a short time before application was $23.61 for the eight-ton application, or $2.95 per ton.

WHAT AN ILLINOIS AUTHORITY SAYS

Dr. C. G. Hopkins of the Illinois Station is authority for the statement that the value of farm yard manure comes not only from the elements of plant food which it may contain, but also and sometimes chiefly that the decaying organic matter of the manure liberates quantities of plant food already in the soil and adds humus, which may or may not, according to the character and previous treatment of the soil, add considerably to its value. By balancing the stall manure by the addition of a carrier of phosphorus the value of the eight tons of such manure was increased $12.20, or $1.53 per ton, and this after deducting the cost of the material used for balancing the same. Adding this to the untreated stall manure we have $2.95 plus $1.53, which equals $4.48 as the possible net agricultural value of the phosphated farm manure as applied to the soil at the Wooster Experiment Station, where the soil is a sandy clay loam. It should be clearly understood that more than one-third of this value is due to the addition of phosphorus, and it may be stated that practically the same increase was made whether the phosphorus was applied as acid phosphate, costing 30 cents, or as finely ground natural rock phosphate, costing 16 cents, to the ton of manure. The power of farm manure to liberate mineral plant food from the soil applies with

VALUE OF MANURE 13

equal or greater force to the liberation of phosphorus from the insoluble rock phosphate when applied in connection with manure.

When we remember that the production of manure of the 1000 pound steer for a six-months' feeding period varies from three to four tons, we can appreciate what a factor farm yard manure may become in increasing the revenues of the farm and that profits and losses in cattle feeding should not stop with a consideration of the cost of cattle and feed and their selling price.

Chapter II. General Considerations In Buying Feed- Ing Cattle

There is always that first consideration as to whether or not the farmer should buy cattle to feed. This is a very important question, and the correct answer to it depends upon so many factors that it will seldom be answered twice alike. One thing is certain, it is always wise to be conservative in considering cattle feeding propositions. In general it would seem good practice not to buy cattle to feed unless the larger part of the corn and roughage necessary for finishing are available from products grown on the farm. Profits in cattle feeding, while not always denied to the man who is obliged to purchase corn, other concentrates, and roughages, are necessarily smaller than to the feeder who produces his feeds, provided, of course, the same methods and intelligence obtain in each instance. This is the chief advantage of the corn-belt cattle feeder over his less fortunate brother farmer outside the corn-belt. As to the amount of corn and roughage required to finish a steer, much depends upon the supplementary feeds and the kind and quality of roughage used with corn. The age and condition of the feeding cattle and the method of feeding also have a direct bearing upon the amount required.

Taking, however, an. average instance, namely, the finishing of a 2-year-old or older steer of the choice grade weighing 1000 pounds, fattened in six months from purchase, when the ration is corn and a good quality of clover or alfalfa hay, 55 to 66 bushels of corn and one ton of hay will be required. If the corn is supplemented with some nitrogenous supplement, like oil meal

BUYING FEEDING CATTLE 15

or cottonseed meal, slightly less corn will be needed. If other roughages than clover and alfalfa aie used, such as corn stover and straw, then less clover will be required. If cattle are on grass the acreage required will depend upon the extent to which grain is fed and the quality of the grass. Knowing approximately the amount of feed produced that is available for feeding cattle, the feeder is thus in a position to know about how many cattle he can feed advantageously.

In regard to the number the cattle feeder should feed, the writer wishes to emphasize the fact that cattle feeding is a business that lends itself most advantageously to extensive practice and methods. In other words, the cattle feeder who does not feed at least a carload is greatly handicapped when it comes to selling — so much so that we do not advise the finishing of cattle in less than car lots. This same thought carried a little further means that the cattle feeder who is in a position to feed even more than one carload has a distinct advantage over the one-carload feeder. As a rule, he saves on freight, labor, and purchased feeds. Further than this, he has an opportunity to more evenly grade his cattle to the advantage of the more timid and smaller cattle in the feed lot. Again, some cattle finish more quickly than others, and the extensive feeder has the opportunity to select a load of this kind and market them as soon as they are ready. The one-load feeder is likely to have one or more steers that are not finished, a few that may be considerably fatter than the majority, enough so, at least, to make the load look uneven, and, as a result, sell unsatisfactorily.

Successful beef production usually comes as a reward to those who have made a close study of the business and have pursued it sufficiently long to render them keen to take advantage of every favorable opportunity that presents itself, whether it be drought or flood, for buying to advantage. They aim to buy when, for whatever reason, they can get the best quality for the least money.

They frequently buy something a little different from their choice because of circumstances that render another grade or condition of cattle manifestly cheaper. No two seasons are precisely alike, hence the successful cattle feeder is resourceful and far-seeing.

In addition to the question of soil fertility already discussed, the conditions most likely to influence farmers to feed cattle are: large crops commonly used in finishing cattle, especially when the cash market for such products rules low; high prices for fat cattle; low prices prevailing for stockers and feeders; and the prosperity of neighboring cattle feeders.

In some ways, all of these are treacherous guides to follow. If abundant crops are followed by correspondingly cheap corn and roughage, cheap gains are assured where these feeds are administered by intelligent hands. Cheap feeds, however, have a tendency to create an abnormal demand for stock and feeding cattle as a result of which, prices for such stock are apt to rise — at times above a point where the cattle feeder can afford to handle them. Notwithstanding this fact, more cattle are put on feed at such times than usual, and, because of the cheap feed, there is a tendency for feeders to hold longer and make them better.

The inevitable result of an abundant supply of well finished beeves is to cheapen them, so that when feeds are abundant and relatively cheap the cattle feeder must guard against buying them at prohibitive prices, and with the feeling that prices at such times are more likely to go lower than higher. Whether or not prevailing low prices for stockers and feeders should be a potent influence in determining • the extent of cattle feeding operations will depend largely upon the general status of the cattle industry, business conditions, and probable price of feeds.

Of all the hazardous guides followed by the prospective cattle feeder, that of the prosperity of a neighbor feeder is most hazardous. Farmers unaccustomed to

BUYING FEEDING CATTLE 17

fattening cattle have seen a neighbor make money in the business for three or four consecutive years and conclude that they too can do likewise. Quite often the next year and the next prove unfavorable for the cattle feeder, and the beginner, confronted with this obstacle in addition to his lack of experience, loses considerable money that he can ill afford to lose. Many well-informed cattlemen make it a rule to feed a certain number of cattle each year without much regard to changing conditions. This seems the safer rule, provided conditions are not such as to make it possible to know at the outset that the business can not be engaged in without loss. Certain it is that such a policy is far wiser than one which involves going in and out of the business with an effort to follow market and other conditions.

WHEN, WHERE, AND HOW TO MAKE PURCHASES OF FEEDING CATTLE

If we were able to make a definite statement as to when, where, and how to buy feeding cattle that could be followed in all seasons and under all conditions, we know the information would be of inestimable value to the cattle feeders of the country. Experienced cattle feeders understand, however, that such statements, if made at all, would need to be qualified by many exceptions. No attempt will be made to give rules for the guidance of buyers of feeding cattle, but rather some of the more important factors affecting these questions will be discussed sufficiently to make it possible for the individual to come to an intelligent decision in these matters after becoming thoroughly familiar with local and market conditions.

WHEN TO BUY

The best time to buy is when the cattle can be bought the cheapest, all things considered. This is easily said, but it is, indeed, difficult to know for any certain season when that time will come. A reasonably favorable time may be allowed to pass by the cattle feeder because he believes there will come a better time. Then, too, the majority feel that they must buy about a certain time in order to use economically available pasturage or roughage. The most common practice is to buy feeding cattle in the fall and early winter. It is believed that two-thirds of the feeding cattle are purchased during the fall and early winter months. This fact has come about naturally enough. Breeders of feeding cattle usually unload before winter sets in. If the season has been favorable, rendering pasturage abundant, and if winter does not set in until late, liberal arrivals of feeding cattle are likely to be late in reaching the feeding cattle markets. On the other hand, if a general drought or other unfavorable conditions prevail, it will cause a liberal marketing of cattle, which generally results in cheaper values for thin stock. Besides the cheapness of feeding cattle at seasons when cattle are plentiful, there is that other important advantage of being able to select more uniform feeders. There is, of course, the seeming necessity of purchasing feeding cattle in the fall or early winter if a large amount of roughage is to be used for the maintenance of cattle and the production of beef. Practically all those who do not buy their feeding cattle in the fall buy in the spring. The market at this season is usually higher, but where cheap roughage and good winter quarters are not available it is usually better practice to pay the extra prices in the spring than to attempt to winter such cattle under unfavorable conditions that are sure to render the practice unprofitable.

WHERE TO BUY

The answer to this question will depend largely upon the locality in which the cattle are to be fed and the extent to which the feeder is engaged in the business. Extensive cattle feeders, and by this we refer to those who

BUYING FEEDING CATTLE 19

feed 100 or more cattle at a time, prefer the market or range as a source of supply. There are obvious reasons for doing so. As a rule, it is impossible to get together locally a large number of well-bred feeding cattle that are uniform in age, type and condition. Buying on the range or in the market frequently effects a saving of time. By taking advantage of a glut in the market or a lack of demand, the large cattle feeder is able to buy cheaper than he could in the country, as it is generally true that country prices do not fluctuate to the same extent as do market values. Good practice in beef production cannot, however, be established by assuming that abnormal conditions which will be favorable to the beef producer will always occur. Where local buying, either for the large or small feeder, is possible, it has distinct advantages, among which are a saving on freight, shrinkage, commission, and other expenses incident to buying; the breeding and normal condition of the cattle may be better determined, no bruising or gaunting incident to shipping, and finally, no acclimatization is necessary.

HOW TO BUY

It is assumed that the buyer in quest of feeding cattle knows what he wishes and approximately what he ought to pay for it. In case the source of his supply must come from the market it is wise to get in communication with some good live-stock commission company considerably in advance of the time the cattle are needed. Commission companies do not know, nor do they assume to know, everything. They do have opportunities of getting information on a wide range of subjects that are of utmost importance to cattle feeders. The permanency and success of their business depend upon the thoroughness with which they gather, interpret and dispense this information for the benefit of those whom they serve. They are not always able to tell from a feeder's description just what kind of cattle he wishes to buy, hence a visit to the market by the feeder and a trip of inspection around the yards with the feeder buyer is advised in order to familiarize him with just the kind of cattle wanted. It is best, where possible, to aid in the selection of the cattle to be purchased, but when it comes to buying, the commission company can be of great help, because their daily contact with the work makes them quicker and more accurate in their judgment of values, weights and condition. They are frequently able to save many times their commission by being able to buy cheaper.

Good market reports with ably edited comments on the general crop and market conditions should be frequent visitors in every cattle feeder's home, and these should be carefully studied.

Chapter III. The Various Grades Of Feeding Cattle Described

The ability to select stockers and feeders intelligently is one of the first and most important lessons for the stockman to learn. Profits in steer feeding come not so much from skill in feeding and management as from intelligent buying and selling. The possibility of profit resulting from an increase during the fattening period of the value per pound of the initial weight of the animal is as great as is that resulting from the method employed in the feeding and managment. It is seldom possible to produce at a profit gains which do not increase the value per pound of the animal. Hence the importance of intelligent buying, or the selection of feeders and stockers of good quality.

FANCY SELECTED FEEDERS

Relatively, very few of this grade of stockers and feeders find their way to market. Breeders in any of the cattle feeding sections fortunate enough to own thinnish steers of such quality usually hold them until finished as prime bullocks, or sell them at home to feeders at good, strong prices, avoiding the expenses incident to shipping. Fancy selected feeders must not only possess the characteristics of choice feeders, but they must be uniform in color, give unmistakable evidence of being high grades of some one of the beef breeds, and they are almost invariably better fleshed than feeders of the good to choice grades. Fancy selected stockers and feeders are to the stocker and feeder class what prime steers are to the beef cattle class — the best grade within the class — and practically above adverse criticism.

CHOICE FEEDERS

Steers of this grade will, like those of the fancy selected grade, under proper management, develop into choice and prime steers. It would seem wise, therefore, to consider in detail their desirable characteristics.

It may be said, then, that we demand in choice

Fig. 1. Fancy Selected Feeder.

stockers and feeders, first, the ability to finish as choice or prime steers; and second, the ability to make economical gains in flesh and fat. As far as our present knowledge of the matter goes, we look for indications of these tendencies in the form, quality, and constitution.

1. Form — The general form should be low-set, deep, broad, and compact, rather than high up, gaunt, narrow and loosely made. Stockers and feeders should be low-set, or on short legs, because animals of this conformation are almost invariably good feeders and capable of early maturity. They should be deep, broad

CHOICE FEEDERS 23

and compact, because this conformation indicates good constitution, capacity for growth and for producing ultimately a relatively high percentage of the most valuable cuts. Select feeders with broad, flat backs and long, level rumps. They should possess straight top and underlines which should be nearly parallel; should be low at the flanks, thus forming what we have spoken of above as good depth, for the barrel of stockers and feeders as well as clairy cows should be roomy. An animal which is too paunchy, however, is objectionable to the butcher.

Secure as much- smoothness of outline as is consistent with low flesh, being especially careful to avoid too great prominence in hips, tailhead, and shoulders. Avoid rough, coarse heads with small eyes set in the side of the head. Short, broad heads and short, thick necks indicate strong tendencies toward beef making. A large, prominent, and mild eye is to be desired. The mild eye denotes that the animal has a quiet disposition, which all feeders know is so desirable in a steer intended for the feed lot. The lower jaw should be heavily coated with muscle; the muzzle, lips, and mouth should be large but not coarse.

2. Quality — It is well to distinguish between what might be called (a) general quality and (b) handling quality.

(a) General quality. By general quality is meant general refinement of external conformation as seen in the head, horn, bone, compactness and smoothness of outline. General quality is affected by nothing so much as by breeding; in fact, the two are very closely associated. Good quality is seldom found in a plainly bred steer, but is generally characteristic of a well bred animal. The desirability of general quality cannot be too strongly emphasized. While it is a characteristic that involves many points and is difficult to describe, its presence or absence is quickly discerned by the trained eye of the intelligent buyer. It is this characteristic in the stockers and feeders more than any other that we depend upon as indicating that the animal has within it the possibility of making a. prime steer.

(b) Handling quality. Good handling quality indicates that the possessor is a good feeder. It shows that the animal is in good health or thrifty and capable

.

Fig. 2. Choice Feeder.

of beginning to gain as soon as an abundance of food is supplied. We speak of cattle as possessing good handling quality when the skin is mellow and loose. A thick, mossy coat of hair of medium fineness and a moderately thick skin are also desirable.

3. Constitution — The points indicative of good constitution have practically been covered under Form. Good constitution is indicated by a wide, deep chest, by fullness in the heart-girth, depth and breadth of body, and good handling quality. While we want refinement of form and bone, otherwise spoken of as general quality,

CHOICE FEEDERS 25

we do not want that refinement carried to the point of delicacy. Too much refinement means delicacy or a lack of constitution, and no animal lacking in constitution should find its way into the feed lot.