Studies and observations in the school-room

Introduction

Doubtless, parents and teachers have studied children from the time of the earliest homes and schools, and certainly children have studied parents and teachers (perhaps more effectively) for as long. It is only within the last quarter of a century, however, that teachers have attempted to study children in a systematic way. The enthusiasm with which such study was carried on in this country a dozen years ago, caused the movement to be called "another educational fad" to which Americans are supposed to be peculiarly subject. To many teachers it was that and nothing more, but to others have come visions of the depth of educational wisdom to be reached from knowing the little child, his heart, his mind, his soul, "all in all" wherein is mirrored so clearly "what God and man is."

To-day there is much less popular talk about the study of children, but much more actual study of them. The froth and foam have disappeared, but interest in children has become an essential part of all streams of thought connected in any way with the origin and development of man. Evolutionary theory which has so completely modified scientific, philosophical and even theological thought in the last half century, culminates and finds its highest application in the development of children, and the individual needs of children are being considered by teachers more than at an\- time since the adoption of the graded system,

4 INTRODUCTION

Children may be profitably studied individually by teachers, as a means of knowing how best to deal with each one, or in groups, as a means of knowing what is best to emphasize in class work and school management. Teachers are also in a position to collect data from which scientific investigators may derive the general truths of psychology, child study, and education. Practically no grade teachers and few superintendents have the time or training that would permit them to do the work of a specialist in building up a science of child study. To expect it of them would be more absurd than to expect them to make original contributions to the science of chemistry, for the phenomena of child life are far more complex than are those of atoms and molecules. Yet observing persons who are interested in nature, are often able to report facts regarding the distribution of plants and the habits of animals that are valuable to the biologist and, in a similar way, teachers who are in constant association with children and systematically and intelligently interested in them, can furnish the specialist with numberless facts that are not accessible to him.

Superintendents may ask teachers to co-operate in such collection of data, either with or without the assistance of specialists, as a means of arousing a more intelligent interest in children and of leading teachers to teach children rather than subjects. Such studies carefulh- made and tabulated give teachers and superintendent a more definite and precise knowledge of the local conditions that are afi'ecting the development of the children, which the school should either supplement or counteract. Just as an examination often reveals to teachers and superintendents the strength and weakness of the work being done, more perfectly than do the daih' recitations, so do child study tests and questionnaires,

INTRODUCTION 5

when carefully tabulated, reveal conditions and influences hitherto unsuspected.

The author of this book, Superintendent Kratz, early realized the true value of child study and few, if any, of our superintendents have maintained the same consistent, intelligent interest during and since the time when the first popular wave of enthusiasm passed over our country. His "Studies and Observations in the School-room," delightfully written as it is, will be of popular interest, and especially valuable and suggestive to teachers and superintendents. Studies similar to those described in Chapters I, II, III, IV, VI, VII, and XII should be made in every city, in order that teachers and superintendents may intelligently adapt the work of the school to local conditions and individual needs, while Chapters V, VIII, and IX present truths that are of universal interest and application. Other chapters, such as X, XIII, XV, and XVII, give interesting glimpses of the observations and experiences of a superintendent of schools.

The book is not an addition to the many weighty volumes on pedagogy over which teachers are poring, but a very pleasant stimulating, nutritive refreshment to be taken, a chapter at a time, digested and applied.

E. A. KiRKPATRICK

Fitchburg, Mass.

Table Of Contents

Chapter

Introduction by Dr. E. A. Kirkpatrick . . 3

I Explanatory 9

Chapter I Explanatory

In presenting "Studies and Observations in the School- Room" to the teachers of the country, the author does not presume that it will meet "a long-felt want," but he does hope that it will be of some assistance to that constantly increasing class of teachers who are earnestly striving to increase the efficiency of their work, and render it more practical, by a careful study and more thorough acquaintance with the inclinations, interests and needs of their pupils.

Study of Inclinations and Interests

The pedagogical literature of the past has dwelt too much upon the realization of an ideal system of education, conceived from the adult point of view, largely theoretical in character, and ignoring the inchnations and interests of the children. In fact, at times, it took on the extreme form that the more the system of education ran counter to the inclinations of the children, the better it was calculated to develop and discipline them, and to build up strong character.

y lo STUDIES AND OBSERVATIONS

Wc know now that the growth is through self-activity, and the more interesting and enjoyable that activity, provided it be in the right channels, the more rapid the growth. The successful twentieth century teacher must therefore carefully study the inclinations, interests, dislikes, prejudices, in fact, every phase of the emotional life of her pupils, so that, like the skillful mariner, she may be able to take advantage of every favoring breeze to reach the desired port.

The careful study of the emotional life of each of her pupils is also demanded from the standpoint of character building. Out of the emotions come the currents which shape character. The successful teacher must be quick to discover in what direction these are flowing, and keep the wholesome life currents open. To do this, requires the most careful study of each pupil as an individual.

The author hopes that the presentation of these studies may lead a larger number of teachers to see what a simple and yet interesting matter it is, to make such investigations, and thus be induced to enter upon some line of investigation of their own pupils. He feels confident that it will make their teaching more practical, sympathetic, and effective, if such a course be pursued.

Individual Study of Pupils

Another purpose sought, is to interest the teachers in the study of their pupils as individuals. Teachers have been inclined to overlook the individual pupil in instructing the large classes which economy seemed to demand. Class instruction has failed to produce its best results, because it labored under the delusion that there was an a\-crage pupil through whom the work that the class

IX THE SCHOOL-ROOM n

should do could be accurately measured and adapted. The problem then was to learn the capacity of that supposed average child, and cram that amount of pabulum down the mental oesophagus of each child, nolens volens, without any special regard to his individual powers of assimilation.

It is now recognized that instruction must be adapted, as far as possible, to the peculiar needs of each pupil. This necessitates a careful study on the part of the teacher of the chief characteristics of each pupil as an individual, so that instruction may be adapted, not to a fictitious average pupil, but as far as possible, to the peculiar mental attitude and needs of each pupil.

About ten years ago the author, convinced of the helpfulness of a study of each pupil's characteristics, and of the desirability of its being pursued in a systematic manner, devised the blank, which he called "Record of Pupil's Chief Characteristics." (See next page.)

Results

The results of such study were highly satisfactory. First, and of foremost importance, the teachers were deeply interested in the study of the chief characteristics of their pupils and such comments as these were made: "It's hard work. I have my pupils in my thought as never before. I am studying them and their individual peculiarities, and gaining an insight into them, which I know must prove highly helpful to me." "Although it is hard work, yet I know it is doing me a world of good." "It makes my teaching so much more interesting, and gives greater dcfiniteness to . it. I am gaining a clearer insight into child nature."

RECOKD OF PUPIL'S CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS

Pupil's Name :

Date Age — Nationality

Health

Temperament (nervous, equable, sluggish, etc.)

Grade

If Behind Grade, Why?

General Ability (excellent, medium, poor)

Sight (good or defective)

Hearing (good or defective)

Observation (excellent, medium, poor)

Memory — Verbal (excellent, medium, poor)

M-emory — Thought (excellent, medium, poor)

Imagination (vivid, medium, weak)

Thought (strong, medium, weak)

Feeling Through Which to Govern

Self Control (excellent, medium, weak)

Sense of Right (excellent, medium, weak)

Use of Language (excellent medium, poor)

Subject of Deepest Interest

Chief Characteristic (timid, rash, etc.)

Greatest Deficiency

First Month

Fifth Month

Ninth Month

First Fifth" ( Ninth Month Month Month

Fill out the blanks at the top of sheet during the first two weeks; the remaining blanks at the close of the first month, or as soon as the characteristics called for can be learned. Where words are enclosed in parentheses as " excellent," " medium," " poor," etc., E., M., P., can be used in the blanks.

Add to the record any changes which may be noticed under any of the characteristics called for. If none can be noticed, then draw a line in the space.

The principal object sought is to lead teacbt'rs lo "tudy each pupil as an individual, note his characteristics and thus be able to plan for and attain definite results, and to secure the proper development of the individual pupil.

Second, There was a more intelligent appreciation on the part of teachers of the real needs and the defects of then- pupils, and as a natural consequence, a greater definiteness of aim in their work.

Third, There were found a few children who were regarded as lacking in capacity and hopelessly dull, to be simply dull in hearing. These, when reheved of partial deafness, soon manifested c[uickened mental life. There were those also who made slow progress because of defective eyesight, who were greatly aided in their studies by the use of glasses.

Fourth, Teachers were able to seat pupils to a better advantage, placing pupils with defective senses in front seats.

Fifth, The teachers were made aware of physical and mental defects and weaknesses of - pupils, and as the record kept these definitely before them, they were better able to train wisely for symmetrical development.

Sixth, The teachers were brought into closer and more companionable relations with their pupils in general, and developed greater intelligence and sympathy in dealing with the so-called bad boys and girls.

Seventh, The records disclosed to the superintendent, at least in part, how carefully his teachers studied their pupils, the measurements they applied, what motives they appealed to, what feelings they sought to arouse, what relations, sympathetic or otherwise, they were cultivating with their pupils.

Candor compels the admission that not every teacher in the corps was thus profited, but the important fact still remains that nearly all were deeply interested, and their work was grreatlv advanced in efficiencv.

This general attitude of studying the pupils, naturally led into special studies of the children as to their ideas, interests, likes and dislikes, etc., and thus originated the various studies recorded in this volume. Some of these investigations were made according to plans outlined by the author, while other plans were simply borrowed. Originality is not held as the chief merit of this volume. If it has any merit, it will be found rather in the direction of leading additional teachers into this interesting and profitable study of the children.

Chapter II Study Of Pupils' Preferences

Plan

The following study of pupils' preferences is based upon a careful canvass of two thousand one hundred eighty-one papers, written as a language exercise, by third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth grade pupils, in response to the following questions :

1. What school study do you like best? Why?

2. What school study do you like least? Why?

3. What is your most pleasant work out of school? Why?

4. What is your most unpleasant work out of school ? Why?

The teachers also sent in statements of their preferences as far as school studies were concerned.

The purposes for which the above exercises were given were:

1. To give teachers an insight into their pupils' preferences in regard to school and other work, so as to bring them into closer touch and sympathy with their pupils.

2. To raise the enquiry whether or not teachers' preferences for certain studies lead them to put more thought, energy and skill into the teaching of such studies and thus largely shape their pupils' preferences.

3. To disclose to teachers, through their pupils' lack

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i8 STUDIES AND OBSERVAllONS

of interest, in what subjects they are doing their poorest teaching.

4. To reveal to teachers tliose outside interests of pupils, which may be utilized in arousing interest in school work that has unfortunately become distasteful.

On pages 16 and 17 is given a tabular view of the results obtained in regard to the investigations of pupils' likes and dishkes of school studies, in which subjects of the curriculum are arranged in the order of preference as correctly as possible.

A word of explanation is, however, necessary. Geography is not taught beyond the middle of the seventh grade, nor writing beyond the sixth, nor history, by text-book, in any but the seventh and eighth grades, nor civil government in any but senior eighth grade. Hence an exact average of all these studies cannot be tabulated, although in the case of geography it is approximately correct.

The average age of each grade can be approximated by adding six to the grade; e.g., third grade pupils average about nine years, etc.

Arithmetic First Choice

A study of the table presented discloses many interesting facts, some familiar and some otherwise. Every observing teacher is familiar with the fact that boys generally prefer arithmetic, while girls usually are more interested in geography and language.

Our table shows that arithmetic heads the Hst for both boys and girls, the boys having a constantly increasing per cent, beginning with thirty in the third grade and ending with fifty in the eighth grade, or an average of thirty-eight per cent, while the girls begin with twenty-eight in third grade and end with thirty-nine in eighth grade, or an average of thirty-four per cent.

What about the teachers' preferences? They have, as might be anticipated from the high per cent of girls' preferences for arithmetic, a more decided leaning toward that subject than their pupils, beginning with thirty-five per cent in the third grade and ending with sixty-two per cent in eighth grade, or an average of forty-nine per cent throughout.

Here, no doubt, teachers' preferences have much to do in shaping pupils' preferences, but the high per cent on part of pupils is not wholly due to the teacher's love of the subject. There is a kind of fascination which grows out of the exactness in the operations of arithmetic. The pupil is lured on to storm the strongholds of his problems, and capture the answers as trophies of his skill, as the soldier by the honors and spoils of war.

Then, too, there is the common delusion that arithmetic is the most practical of studies, because it affords such excellent training for the reasoning powers, when the fact is that there is but little use for such exact reasoning, since conclusions in real life are reached almost entirely through the balancing of probabihties.

Geography, Second

The subject next highest in favor is geography. Here the boys again lead the girls. The per cents do not increase as uniformly as in arithmetic, but the decrease in seventh grade — the highest grade in which geography is tausfht — is due to the fact thai il is onlv taught the lirst half of that grade. The maximum of ])ui)ils' i)refcrences is reached in sixth grade, that of teachers' in fourth Nevertheless, pupils' preferences follow pretty closely on that of the teachers', although averages run as follows: teachers, twenty per cent ; boys, twenty-nine per cent ; girh, twenty-two per cent.

Had such an investigation as this been made no longer than ten years ago, geography would not have ranked second in pupils' preferences, but at the foot of the list. It was then presented as a mass of disconnected facts, and only appealed to the carrying power of the memory, upon which it attempted to place intolerable burderis. We now build our geographical structure upon a few fundamental ideas, such as topography, etc., interpret the unseen by the seen, make it a study of causes and effects, a thought, instead of a memory study, and presto! it becomes one of t'he most interesting studies of the public school curriculum.

United States History, Third

United States History ranks third on the list, but since it is only formally studied in seventh and eighth grades, but little can be said about it. History seems to have some strong characteristics, for while it ranks third in teachers' preferences, it ranks second in their dislikes. The boys' preferences exceed the girls' in the ratio of two to one.

The fact that history ranks third in the preferred list, and because it deals with human actions and relations, and possesses therefore much rich material for character building, suggests that the present movement introducing history into all the grades — in the form of simple biography in the primaries — has much to commend it.

Language, Fourth

Language, including grammar in seventh and eighth grades, is given fourth place by teachers and girls, but drops to seventh place in the boys' preferences. The teachers' preferences average sixteen per cent, the girls' twelve per cent, while the boys' drop to four per cent. The maximum per cent of preference is reached by both boys and girls in the eighth grade, or in the study of grammar. In the case of the girls there was a gradually increasing appreciation from the lowest to the highest grade. The teachers' maximum was reached in the sixth grade. It is gratifying to note the increasing appreciation of this important subject among the pupils as they approach the higher grades.

Reading, Fifth

Reading comes fifth in the hst, but pupils lead the teachers. Boys and girls each attain eight per cent, while the teachers only reach six per cent. What is a matter of some concern, is the decreasing per cent of preference for reading as pupils advance in the grades. Does reading become more and more a perfunctory process? Has famiharity with the selections driven nearly all inspiration out of them? Do we need fresher selections? Is reading not well taught? We do not wish to make any hasty generalizations, so put these suggestions in the form of questions.

Spelling ranks sixth in pupils' preferences, with an average of eight per cent for the boys and nine per cent for the girls, but preferred by none of the teachers.

Physiology holds sixth place in teachers' preferences.

and eighth among the pupils. Only three per cent of both boys and girls regard this subject with favor. Strange that the study which, ought to appeal to the pupils as eminently useful and practical, should be regarded with so little favor! It suggests the inquiry whether teachers have tried to impress upon pupils the practical benefits of this study.

Music, drawing and writing are last in the list, and preferred by none of the teachers. The pupils' preferences run as follows: music, boys, three per cent; girls, seven per cent; drawing, boys, two per cent; girls, three per cent; writing, boys, one per cent; girls, one per cent.

There was internal evidence in the answers that some boys have unfortunately dropped into the error of regarding proficiency in music as a feminine accomplishment, and therefore unworthy the studious attention of the superior masculine intellect. This fear of descending (?) into woman's sphere, and, in consequence manifesting feminine characteristics, only alarms, as a rule, the weak, effeminate boy, who is in constant fear of betraying his effeminacy, just as the bully, desiring to have courage imputed to him which he does not possess, strives to counterfeit courage by swagger and bluster.

Civil Government, since it occupies less than a half year in the eighth grade, furnishes but little basis for comparison. The per cents of preference are: boys, nine; girls and teachers, none. This lack of interest on the part of girls and teachers is not surprising, when we remember that the present unjust disfranchisement of women deprives them of one of the highest incentives to master this subject.

Order of Dislikes

A glance at dislikes in school studies discloses the fact that pupils do not follow teachers as closely here as in preferences. Twenty-six per cent of the teachers dislike drawing, the highest per cent of dislikes among the teachers, while the pupils reach the highest per cent of dislikes in arithmetic. It should be recalled in this connection, that arithmetic also attained the highest per cent of preferences, which indicates that it must have strong characteristics.

Briefly the order of dislikes of teachers as shown in per cents runs as follows : history, twenty-two ; spelling, sixteen; physiology, sixteen; music, eleven; writing, nine; arithmetic, six; language, six; reading, three ; geography, two. Pupils' dislikes given in per cents are: arithmetic, boys, fourteen; girls, twenty-four; language, boys, nineteen; girls, fourteen ; spelling, boys, seventeen; girls, nine; physiology, boys, eight ; girls, sixteen ; music, boys, fourteen; girls, four; drawing, boys, nine; girls, nine; geography, boys, six; girls, twelve; history, boys, three; girls, ten; reading, boys, six; girls, four; writing, boys, four; girls, four.

Reasons Assigned

The reasons assigned for likes and dishkes afforded an interesting study of which only a few results can be given. The most common reason given for liking a study was the one that it was "easy." Twenty-five per cent of all the pupils gave this reason. It was gratifying, however, to notice that the highest per cent was in the third grade, the lowest canvassed, where it reached thirty-three per cent.

As a wholesome contrast to this, quite a respectable number assigned as a reason for liking a study that it was "hard," and here the highest per cent was in the highest grades. Twelve per cent assigned "interesting" as a reason, and ten per cent "useful." In both cases, the highest per cents were found in the highest grades, as would be anticipated. Other general reasons for preferences which were quite frequently assigned were "Important"; " Understand it best " ; " Makes you think " ; "Can get a high standing in it," etc.

In the dislikes, prejudices often afforded the foundation for them, as, "No sense in it"; "Can't get it"; "Have no talent for it" ; "Can't get it through my head." Such answers as these suggest that a duty may rest upon teachers in the direction of ascertaining and overcoming, wherever possible, such prejudices of pupils. They certainly block the way to interest and progress.

A few of the characteristic reasons for likes and dislikes are given in connection with the subjects of study for or against which they were urged. One pupil's objection to civil government was voiced in the following manner: "I don't care anything about elections." It requires no special power of discernment to conclude that this objection came from a girl. The objections to drawing ran largely in these channels: "I can't draw well." "I don't expect to become an artist." "It will not help me to earn a living."

Writing came in for a fair share of criticism. A common lower grade objection was the blots which so offended the youthful mind. Another and more common objection was found in the tcdiousness of so much writing in connection with other subjects of study. Possibly there is some 2;round for this criticism.

Reading called forth objections like these: "There are so many to read." "I get tired standing." "You have to keep the place all the time."

Physiology was characterized as "disgusting," "horrible." "I do not like to study about people who use narcotics when they ought not."

Grammar called forth these comments: "When a person uses correct grammar, you have more respect for him." "I can say what I want to and make people understand me without learning synopsis and conjugation of verbs." "I don't see what good it does to learn all those rules and things."

Music: "Brightens my other studies, and makes me happy." "My voice is not sweet." "Generally of no good to a boy."

History: "Helps to guide people in the future to govern the country." "Has too many dates to remember."

Arithmetic: "Don't let you think of anything else." "Pleasant to work for an answer." "Makes my brains stronger." "Makes the blood circulate the most." "I enjoy thinking out a hard problem. It gives me pleasure to find I have solved it correctly — something of the same feeling that one has when standing on the summit of a mountain after having climbed it to get a view."

Likes and Dislikes Outside of School

The likes and dislikes of pupils of work to be done out of school, cover a wide field and are hard to summarize. Their chief value lies in reveahng to each teacher the possible starting point for more deeply interesting in school work those indifferent pupils who are not interested in their studies. Such a study also affords an interesting glimpse of the trend which modern children's ideas are taking in reference to home duties.

The boys have no very decided preference for any kinds of work outside of school; however, that is not a discovery of modern Child Study. Eight per cent like doing chores, and two per cent running errands. Among the girls, fifteen per cent express preference for various forms of housework, in which sewing, however, heads the Hst. Tending the baby reaches four per cent, and practicing on the piano, seven per cent.

Reasons Assigned

Some of the characteristic replies for liking certain kinds of work are as follows: "I like housework because girls ought to know how to do it." Sensible mother to instill such wholesome ideas into her daughter's mind. "You can't tell when you may be called upon to do housework." That's good sense, too. "I like herding because there's money in it." Presumably that boy will' prove a money maker, as the business instinct crops out early.

"I like to help mamma because it makes her feel good, and it makes me feel good, too." This little girl has early learned the secret of happiness. "Getting up early and making the fires makes a man healthy and wise." Why not inspire our boys to perform unpleasant duties cheerfully, because such an attitiude under the law of compensation will receive its sure reward? "If you do hate anything, you will always have to do it the most." Therefore, don't hate any duty, seems to be the conclusion.