School management, including a general view of the work of education, with some account of the intellectual faculties from the teacher's point of view: organization: discipline: and moral training

Preface

It is hoped that the present volume will prove useful to students of the subject upon which it treats, more particularly to those in their second year of residence in training colleges, and to such of the general body of teachers as wish to have at hand, in a compact form, something beyond the bare outlines so often presented.

An attempt has been made in the first part to give such a sketch of the Intellectual Faculties, and of the bearing of the facts of Mental Science upon the work of the teacher — especially his general methods — as will serve for a foundation on which the succeeding portions of the work may be built. Of the three great divisions of the teacher's work — Organization, Discipline, and Teaching — the first two are more particularly dealt with in this book. While, however, the systematic and detailed treatment of the scientific laws by which Teaching should be governed, together with the complete description of methods and special devices, is left for a future volume, the elucidation of a great number of points respecting this department of the work will also be found scattered through the present treatise. 1

1 See under 'Teaching' in Index.

iv Preface.

Invention or novelty has not been my aim. Still, I trust it will be found that some portions of the work are new, and that, though I have not scrupled to make use of any facts of value within my reach, these have not been adopted without careful examination, and their points of connection with the general subject realized. I have done my best also, wherever I have borrowed any one's peculiar property or the special form of an idea, to acknowledge my indebtedness. That I have succeeded in doing this in all cases I dare not hope.

Throughout I have tried to give such information upon the various subjects treated as to the teacher is worth knowing, and, where possible, to bring each important point to the test of experience. This has led me to dissent strongly in several places from very commonly accepted opinions. My object in such cases is rather to lead to further observation and experiment than to lay stress upon my own views.

In conclusion I have to express my sincerest thanks to the Rev. F. W. Burbidge, M. A., for his kindness and help in so carefully reading through the proof-sheets, and to several other friends for a similar favor, or for suggestions during the progress of the work.

J. L.

Saltley : November 27, 1882.

Part I

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORK OF EDUCATION, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES.

Chapter I. The Meaning And Scope Of Education

PAGB

Knowledge of the work of education important to parents and

teachers i

Foundation facts to be sought in the sciences which deal with the

mind and the body 2

Development of the faculties depends upon their proper and

regular use . 3

Broadly viewed, education includes two kinds of influences . 4

Specific education has two essential functions —

(a) The strengthening and extension of the human powers —

humanistic or disciplinary view ..... 5

(b) The preparation of the individual for the active work of

life — realistic or utilitarian view .... 6

What education includes — variations of meaning ... 9

Great importance of education during the early period of life . 10 Education is not responsible for all differences of character . 1 1 Importance of a realization of the meaning and scope of education i2

VI

Contents.

Chapter II. Three Lines Of Educational Development

PAGS

Threefold division of the work — relations and interdependence

of the several parts 14

(a) The Education of the Body 15

Professor Bain's opinion respecting this . . . 15 To what extent the teacher is concerned with physical

education 16

(b) The Education of the Intellect . . . . . . 17

Mind properly not a mass of separate faculties . . 17

Convenience of treatment under faculties . . . 17 The three fundamental properties of mental action . ' 18

Approximate order of the development of the faculties. 19

(c) The Education of the Emotional Hatnre and the Will . 20

The necessity for moral strength and power of will . 20

Need of religious training 20

Considerations in training to right action ... 21

The discipline of consequences 22

Motives and reason both to be used .... 23

Chapter III. Some Lessons To Be Learned From A Brief Consideration

OF SENSATION, PERCEPTION, CONCEPTION, AND ATTENTION.

(a) Sensation, Perception, and Conception .... 24

The senses and their organs 24

The mechanism of transmission of nerve force . . 25 How an impression becomes a sensation and finally a

perception 25

The formation of simple ideas 26

The processes of simple generalization and abstraction 27

The complex nature of conception .... 27

Language is useless without the underlying ideas . 28

Necessity for the education of the senses ... 29

Qualities of perception which should be fostered . 29

The place of ' object lessons ' and similar exercises . 30

Contents. vii

PAGE

(b) Attention 31

Attention a co-ordinating and controlling force — the means of focussing the mind, as it were, upon an

object 31

Its necessity and importance with reference to the other

faculties 31

Rest afforded by change of object .... 32 Qualities of attention: (1) vivacity (2) intensity (3) continuity 32

Attention controlled in two ways — from within or from

without 33

Means of engaging the attention of children . . 33

The relation of punishment to attention ... 34

Influence of physical surroundings .... 35

Evils of hurried work 35

Chapter IV. Memory In Education

What is meant by memory 36

Variations in its action 37

(a) Apprehension . 39

Upon what correct apprehension depends ... 39

Memorizing a form of words. Position of cram . 40

Points to be borne in mind in presenting facts to the memory :

1. Discrimination between important and unimportant facts 41

2. Judicious selection . . . . . . 42

3. Classification and arrangement ... 42

4. Principles and laws 43

5. Logical sequence of ideas . . . . 44'

6. Sufficient time to obtain clearness . . 45

7. The cultivation of habits of observation, inquiry, comparison, &c 45

{b) Eetention 46

The retaining or recording power. Differences of endowment 46

The holding power of the memory probably at a maximum about the age of ten. Practical conclusions . 47 The probable conservation of mental force . . 48

VI 11

Contents.

Conditions tending to depth of impression and so to power ofretentio?i :

i. Original force of the idea

Attention. Action of sympathy Interest. Curiosity in children Repetition — how made use of Force of attendant emotion 6. State of the health, &c. .

{c) Eeproduction

Conditions affecting the reproduction of ideas

I. Association of Ideas, &*c.

The tendency of ideas, &c, to link themselves together

Mode of action of association

The two fundamental laws of association : (i) law of

contiguity; (2) law of similarity Branch laws of association. Facts suggest one

another by the action of association when they are

united in the mind by :

1. Immediate succession or juxtaposition in time

2. Immediate succession or co-adjacency in space . . .

(a) Useful aids to this

(b) Mnemonic systems

(c) Faculty of localization

3. Cause and effect. Means and end

4. Contrast .....

5. Direct similarity or analogy

{a) Affords foundation for inductive and

deductive reasoning [b) Great value in teaching

6. Natural affinity ....

7. Logical affinity or dependence .

II. Practice in Reproduction How automatic or organic memory arises Value of review courses ....

Importance of reproduction in studies

Practical helps

The province and value of examinations

5o 5i

52 54 56 57 59 59 60

60 61

73 73 75 75 75 76 7 6 78 79

Contents. ix

Chapter V. The Cultivation Of The Imagination, Judgment, And Reason

PAGB

(a) Imagination 80

Definition. How distinct from fancy . .. . . 81 Mode in which the imagination may be made to serve

the purposes of culture. Dangers to be avoided . 81

Difference between memory and imagination . . 82

Imagination of two kinds : (1) reproductive ; (2) creative S3

Methods in which the imagination may be cultivated 84

Influence of books. School libraries ... 85.

Pictures and the ' picturing out ' method in teaching 86

(d) Jndgment .88

What is meant by judgment, How it differs from reason 88

The products of judgment 89

Necessity for attending in teaching to both words and

How words should be explained to children . . 90

' Common sense ' and its value 91

How ' habits of thought ' are formed. Prejudices . 92

The importance of early training in judgment . 92

First steps in training the judgment .... 93

Two processes in judgment — comparison and decision 94

Mode of making use of ' lessons of comparison ' . 95

Comparison of conceptions. Classification . . 96

The child must be led to judge for himself . . 97

Dangers to be avoided in training the judgment . 97

(c) Seasoning Processes 98

Reasoning inductively and deductively ... 98 The process of induction and the names given to its

results 99

Points to which attention must be paid in induction . 99 Induction a more complete process than simple generalization 100

The process of deduction 100

Deductive reasoning traces causes into effects, but tells

us nothing of the causes . . . . . . 10a

The syllogism 101

Considerations in teaching children to reason . . 101

Contents.

PAGB

Inductive training must be based on exact and ready

observation. Value of experimental lessons . . 103

How many arithmetical rules are best taught . . 103

The teaching of the ' parts of speech ' in grammar . 103

Deductive training for children 104

The question ' Why ? ' Its use and abuse . . 105 Deductive exercises in grammar . . . .106

The teaching of Euclid to children .... 107 Defects and errors in reasoning. Cautions to the

teacher 107

Chapter VI. The School Work Of The Teacher

(a) Organization 109

Definition of organization, and what it includes . . 109

Organization must not be confused with education . in

(o) Discipline iii

Discipline gives the law to the school, and concerns

itself mainly with conduct . . . . . 112

Points needing attention in discipline . . . 112

The child must be gradually led to self-control . . 112

{c) Teaching 112

Teaching includes the consideration of (1) the person

taught ; (2) the materials for teaching ; (3) the methods

to be used 113

I3ook knowledge cannot compensate for the want of

careful daily observation of the pupils . . . 113 The subjects of instruction. Necessity of adequate

knowledge on the part of the teacher . . . 113

The teacher should never give up his private reading 114 Knowledge of the methods of teaching . . .114

Distinction between teaching and education . . 115

The difficulty of teaching well 116

Contents.

XI

Chapter I. Systems Of Organization

both

(a) The Individual System

Historical notes respecting the individual plan

Characteristic features of the system .

Its advantages

Its defects

{b) The Mutual or Monitorial System

Short history of the origin and progress of the plan at home and abroad

Names given to the system and its varieties

Sketch of the life of Dr. Andrew Bell

Sketch of the life of Joseph Lancaster

Characteristic features of the system, with a comparison of schemes of Bell and Lancaster

The advantages of the plan

Its defects and shortcomings

(c) CollectiTe Systems i. The Training System .

Origin and spread of the plan

Sketch of the life of David Stow

Leading features of the plan as developed by Stow

The advantages of the scheme

Its defects

2. The Simultaneous or Class-room System

The establishment of the system on the Continent

Its principal characteristics

The advantages and defects of the plan

Dr. Rigg's opinion of the system

(d) Mixed Systems

I. The Tripartite System

Proposed by Rev. H. Moseley in 1845

Leading features and mode of working the scheme

The advantages of the plan

Its defects ....

xii Contents.

2. The Pupil-teacher or English System .... An outgrowth of the monitorial plan. Suggested about

Established as a system by the Minutes of 1846 Changes in the proportion of pupil-teachers to be employed

Some mistakes in working the plan ....

PAGB

162 162

Chapter II. The School And Its Appointments

(a) The Shape, Size, and Disposition of the Rooms

Superficial and cubical content limits per child

The site of the school

Shape and general arrangement .

Class-rooms and their disposition

Walls and flooring

The lobby, or cloak-room, and its fittings .

The teacher's private room . . .. . .

The playground. Its value, position, laying, gymnastic apparatus ; covered sheds

The closets and the drains .... (0) The Mode of Lighting . . •..';,•

Kind and position of windows

Dr. Liebreich's opinion as to the most suitable

Importance of proper lighting (c) Wanning and Ventilation ....

Injurious effects of school life upon children and teach ers largely due to unwholesome conditions of work

Temperature best for work in school

Prof. Huxley on changes of the air in a room due to respiration

Quantity of fresh air to be provided per child

Methods of warming by radiation

Open fire-grates. The Boyd, Manchester, Longden, &c

Common stoves and their defects

Gill stoves. Prevention of undue drying of the air

Hot-water-pipes. Use and disadvantages .

Convection apparatus. Danger from overheating

Ventilation and draughts

Doors and windows as ventilators light

177 177

Contents.

Xlll

PAGE

Cowl ventilators. Sylvester's plan .... 1S4

Arnot's balance valve 184

Ordinary gratings and valves 184

double cylinder ventilator 185

Louvre ventilators 186

(d) Fittings and Fnrnitnre 186

General arrangement 187

Galleries. Characteristics and kinds . . . .187

Desks. Infant school desks. Desks for older children 189

Slope of desks. Measurements. Seats, &c. . . 191

Ink-wells 192

Short-length system of arranging desks . . .192

Long-length system of arrangement .... 193

Teacher's desks, &c 194

Cupboards, &c 195

Curtains 196

Hammocks or cots, &c. ...... 197

Chapter III. The Classification Of The Children

Difficulties of classification

4 Manifold, ' ' twofold, ' and 'single ' systems of classification American and German plans ....

Definitions of ' class '

* Sections' and 'drafts '

1 Grades, ' and how they differ from classes Practical considerations respecting classification .

1 . The extent of the boys' attainments

2. The size of the school ....

3. The last standard passed

4. The number and quality of the teachers

5. The subjects to be taught

6. Cases where age should have weight

7. Readjustment and promotion Question much discussed in America

Mixed schools.

Objections urged against mixed schools Advantages claimed for the arrangement The question mainly one of good or bad government

Chapter IV. The Qualifications, Duties, And Distribution Op The Teachers

PAGE

The pleasure and usefulness of the teacher's work depends largely

upon the spirit in which it is carried on . . . .211

Qualifications of the teacher 212

His methods both of management and teaching should be progressive 213,

Value of a reading habit to the teacher 214

Teaching a difficult art if perfection is aimed at . . .214

{a) The Staffing of Schools 215

Teachers recognized by the Department . . . 215.

Department requirements as to school staff . . 215, What constitutes an efficient staff . . . .216 Opinion of Prof. Huxley's Committee, 187 1, as to school

staff 216

Changes in the Code requirements since 1859 . . 217

{b) The Master 217

The chief school duties of the master . . . 217

Adjustment of superintendence and teaching . . 218

Dealing with parents 219

Should not be hampered with minor regulations framed

by others 220

{c) Adult Assistants " . . . 220

Each should be responsible for a certain group of children 220-

Working of assistant and pupil-teacher together . 220>

The placing of the assistants 221

Relation of assistant to the master . . . .221

Supervision of the work of assistants .... 222

(d) Pupil-Teachers . .222'

Should be placed according to ability and experience 222

Evils of overworking young teachers .... 222-

The training of pupil-teachers ..... 223.

Selection of candidates 223,

Home studies of the pupil-teacher. Examination tests 224 The ' centre system ' of teaching pupil-teachers . . 224 Suggestions on the TEACHING OF THE VARIOUS SUB- JECTS of school work, and on class management. 225.

Contents. xv

PAGE

Monitors ' 230

How far officially recognized 230

Conditions to be borne in mind in their use . . 230

The employment of 'paid monitors' in small schools . 230

Chapter V. The Arrangement Of Time And Subjects — Time-tables

Importance and value of time-tables ....

(a) General Considerations

The subjects to be taught

The internal circumstances of the school

The sex of the scholars. Mode of attendance, &c.

The length and succession of the lessons

Distribution of the noisy lessons

Provision for change of posture and of place

Play, marking of registers, home lessons, &c.

(b) Method of Proceeding to Draw up a Time-Table

Distribution of the time into separate lesson portions

General arrangement

Specimen of time-table

The use of ' ill-adjusted time-tables ' Alterations of work on going to a fresh school . Teacher should draw up a ' syllabus of study ' for each class

(c) Government Kegnlations respecting Time-Tables

Requirements of the Education Act, 1870 . Points selected and condensed from the various ' minutes ' and ' circulars ' respecting time-tables

Chapter VI. The Apparatus And Books

Apparatus good and bad . .

Prevention of wear and tear to apparatus

(a) Kinds of Apparatus ....

Kinds, qualities, and uses of black-boards Maps, diagrams, and pictures Models, specimens, &c.

xvi Contents.

Form, color, and kindergarten apparatus Apparatus for teaching arithmetic Apparatus for teaching reading .

(b) Books

The General Readers

i. General qualities and uses

2. Books for the earliest or conceptive stage

3. Books for the middle or interest stage

4. Books for the upper or information stage The Special Readers

Qualities of books for teaching geography, his

tory, &c

Importance of graduation of subject-matter

Remaining Books

Class-books for the ordinary subjects Varieties of copy-books Manuals for the specific subjects Reference books ....

251 252 252 253 254 255

Chapter VII. Registration

Objects of registration .258

Registers required 258

The individual and collective departments of registration . 259

The Admission Register, and mode of keeping it 260

The Class Registers. Department requirements as to marking, &c. 261

Suggestions. Daily summary, &c. . . . . . . 264

Arrangement of class registers ....... 265

What is meant by ' attendance ' 265

Averages, and the method of finding ...... 267

Returns sometimes required . 268

The checking of the registers by the managers . . . 269

The Log-book . 269

Contents.

xvi 1

Chapter I. The Use Of The Emotions In Education, And Their Cultivation

Necessity for culture of the moral and emotional elements of the child's nature

What is meant by emotion and by passion

Tendency of emotional excitement to affect the body

Emotion and intelligence run side by side

Desire and aversion. How motives arise

Necessity for proper direction of the emotions

Importance of knowing the nature of the child

Law of emotional action. Evil of violent emotion in the case of children

Influence of the emotions on conduct

In what way the will may be made to influence the emotions

Cautions respecting the treatment of children. Nervousness

The cold philosophical temperament

Association of pleasure and pain with conduct

Influence of surroundings on the emotions

Value of sympathy in dealing with children

The emotion arising from steady pursuit

The (Esthetic emotions and the culture of the sense of beauty

Means of training children to good taste, music, oral lessons, &c

Necessity for guiding a child's early aesthetic associations

271 271 272

27.9 280

Chapter II. General Moral And Religious Training

The objects of moral training 283

The association of right or wrong with actions . . . 283

Effect of a child's surroundings on his earliest moral notions . 284

Different natures need different treatment .... afo

Contents.

Connection of morality, intelligence, and emotion

Importance of early moral training

The elements to be made use of in moral training

The teacher's aim in moral training .

Too exclusive attention is often given to what shall not be

Difference between command and influence

Necessity for going slowly. Lessons of experience

Evil of investing neutral actions with a moral significance

The introduction of reasons for right conduct .

Weakness of a merely argumentative discipline

Submission and compulsion ....

The objects of moral instruction ....

Characteristics and methods of moral instruction

The mfluence <?/ example and its mode of use

The imitative tendency in children

Effect of broken promises, &c

Penetration of children in finding out character Action of sympathy and admiration .

Tendency in children to repetition, formation of habits The work of reformation in the case of bad habits The training of the child to responsibility Virtues. Classification, &c. . ...

Training to virtue not abstract, but through personal Truthfulness, and how it is to be secured

Tale-bearing

■ Copying,' and wanton destruction of property Training to acknowledgment of wrong

Passion in children

The nature and growth #/" conscience

Cases of defective action of the conscience

The cultivation of the conscience ...

Religions training, and what it includes

Errors sometimes committed ....

The kind of religious training suitable for children

Religious instruction. How given. Practical lessons, &c action done

Chapter III. The Government Of Children — School Tactics

School discipline, and what it includes 310

The authority of the teacher, and how it is to be exercised . 310

What is required to administer discipline well . . . 311

Contents, xix

The evil of rash judgments ....

Decision in the teacher

Children must be governed, not coaxed

Defects arising from want 0/" uniformity in discipline

The nature of proper obedience ....

Commands, and mistakes in connection with them

Obstinacy. Its varieties and treatment

Connection of ill-temper with injustice

Displeasure. Its use and abuse

Sneering; sarcasm, and ridicule

The practice of making examples

Industry and idleness

312 313 3*3 314

3*4

3i8 Necessity of attending to details if discipline rs to be satisfactory 320

Chapter IV. Motives And The Training Of The Will

Influence of pleasure and pain upon children . . . .321

The character of motives 321

Mode of using motives of the lower kind 322

The employment of too powerful influences .... 322 The principal motives to be made use of by the teacher . . 323 Pleasure arising from active employment — force of habit . 323 Pleasure arising from simple commendation — praise, approbation, esteem 324

Gratification arising from permanent marks of commendation in connection with the pleasure of possession — rewards,

prizes, medals, &c. 325

Pleasure arising to children from the approval and sympathy of

their fellows 328

Emotions of satisfaction from progress, conquest, or successful

competition — emulation, &c. 329

The recognition of moral obligation ; pleasure arising from

right action — sense of duty; sense of worthiness . 331 The will and its action . . . . . . . .334

Influence of motives on the will 334

Mode of disciplining the will 335

Intensity of emotion must not be mistaken for power of will 336

Confusion of obstinacy with strength of will . . . 336 Difference between control of the intellect and moral

self-control 337 xx Contents.

Chapter V. The Nature And Uses Of Punishment

PAGE 338

Importance and difficulty of a proper use of punishment Strong measures necessary when weaker ones have failed Characteristics of effective punishments ....

The child must clearly understand why he is punished Punishment does not give voluntary effort to do right We should never ' chain children to their dead faults ' School punishments are not to be viewed as vengeance of the

law or as expiation of guilt 343

Punishment justifiable us a measure- of guidance and reform . . 343 Action and consequence should be closely associated . ■ 343 Loss of value in punishments from careless indifferent manner 344 Too much has been said about the teacher being calm and

judicial 344

The value of righteous anger 345

Kinds of punishment in common use 346

Smallest amount of punishment must be used which will serve

our turn 346

Discussions about punishment proceed too much on merely

theoretical grounds 346

Probably every kind of punishment used has been condemned by

one or another 347

Compulsory silence and exclusion from companionship . . 347

Censure and shame 348

Book tasks — use and abuse 348

Expulsion an extreme measure 349

Corporal punishment — should include all punishments which depend upon pain of body 349

Theory of the action of bodily pain as a punishment . . 350

A state needing corporal punishment should be viewed as a

diseased one 351

Beyond a certain point corporal punishment should in no case go 351 Effects of corporal punishment on the disposition . . . 352

Offences for which this form of punishment is suitable , . 352

Children must recognize the justice of the punishment if it is to

produce a good moral effect 353

Mode of dealing with obdurate children 354

Severe punishments should be given in private . . . 354

Temptations to employ the rod too commonly . . . 355

Contents. xxi

PAGE

Conclusions respecting the use of corporal punishment . . 356

'No corporal punishment* a standard to aim at . . . 356

Difficulties in the way of the abolition of corporal punishment 357

The injustice often done to the teacher 357

Position of corporal punishment in times past . . . 358

Punishments of a Suabian schoolmaster in the last century . 359

Progress during the present century. Conclusion . . . 359

Index

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.

Part I

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORK OF EDUCATION, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES.