The road-master's assistant and section-master's guide

Front matter

AND Section-Master's Guide.

Shelf. . K 54

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Preface

The object in offering this little volume to the railroad public is to correct, as far as possible, certain erroneous practices into which track-layers and section-men have fallen, which practices are fatal to the life of track and rolling stock.

With the introduction of the '' T " rail in this country a certain method of laying track was adopted, and, with few exceptions, has been adhered to until the present day, and so with track repairs. It may be said that track-men " fell into a groove " thirty years ago, and are still following it, to the great detriment of railroad shareholders and of the pubHc at large.

The enormous expense of track repairs and the liability to accident may be greatly reduced by a reform in the every-day practice of the track-layer and section-master ; and the manner in which this may be accomplished is set forth in this work as clearly and briefly as possible. It would not be a difficult matter to fill a volume of several times the size of this on the subjects herein embraced, but the author believes that the information here given will be more acceptable in its present form — " in a nut-shell " — than if occupying unnecessary space for the purpose of making a di^ book. It is not forgotten that several books have been published, bear-

IV PREFACE.

ing on the same topics ; but they are mainly of a technical nature, and not adapted to the wants or capacities of the average track-man^ and are of little value to other than professional engineers.

The author has undertaken to make this a practical book for practical moi^ and the ideas herein presented are the result of upward of a quarter of a century's experience and extended observation in various capacities, on some of the best as well as some of the worst managed railroads in the country.

It is not designed to '* upset " any well-established theory^ nor is it expected to introduce ideas entirely new to every one who may read these pages; but it is confidently hoped that the great mass of track-men will here find suggestions that will be valuable to them, and far more so to their employers.

The author has, in the course of his experience, demonstrated the truth of all the statements made herein by actual experiment and practice, and may, therefore, commend them to his readers as more valuable than conclusions which are only ^* jumped at/' or opinions formed without mature consideration.

W. S. H.

Preface To The Revised Edition

To Mr. W. S. Huntington, a practical trackman, and a man of very keen perceptive faculties and sound, decided common sense, is due the credit of first presenting to the railroad fraternity a practical work upon track repairs, of which the present volume is the final outgrowth ; and the owners and operators of railroads owe him a debt of gratitude at least for having raised the standard of railroad construction and repairs throughout the country. The invention or initiation of a system is the principal point ; any one may follow him who is the pioneer, but all may not do better or as well. But railroading is a branch of one great work which is developing more rapidly than anything else, and it is almost as hard to keep up with it as to keep pace with the geography of our country and the population of its towns.

I do not pretend to have completely filled the gap where Mr. Huntington, left off, but simply,

VI PREFACE.

at the solicitation of others, who did me the honor to ask me to revise and add to the work of my fellow-laborer Huntington, I have at leisure hours supplied, as I hope, some of the desiderata.

One of the most important things for me to do was to make the book general — that is, to apply to nearly all of the various gauges of the country. To this end I have prepared tables for the elevation of curves for the four gauges in most common use, also frog and switch tables for the same, with bills of timber, etc, as well as methods for putting in crossings and cross-over tracks. I have given more especial descriptions of the better kinds of switches, switch-stands, and ordinary and crossing frogs. I have selected the best systems of rules for the government of the track department from two roads. One set I prepared myself, with the advice and assistance of all the ability upon the road for which they were intended, and with the original rules as a ground-work. The other set was taken from a road where the able engineer followed the same plan, and selected from my rules as well as others the best he could find, producing a more comprehensive sj^stem than my own.

The '' specification for a perfect track '' of the Pennsylvania Railroad is a valuable guide, and is also given to show the experience and teach-

PREFACE. VU

ing of other earnest and zealous workers in this direction. These three will enable the organizer of any road to select the fittest for his use.

A special chapter is devoted to the subject of elevation on curves — a subject so much neglected, and yet one of the most vital to the safety, economy, and comfort of a road. A very excellent method for curving rails with a track-lever is also given, which I can heartily recommend. A special chapter has also been devoted to the question of the disadvantages of level crossings, which to some, perhaps, may seem irrelevant, but to others differently situated probably less so.

A variety of engravings has been introduced, illustrating the best patterns of rails, joints, frogs, and switches ; also the best selections of track-tools, some of which are novel, yet proven. Others, however, of equal, and perhaps in some cases greater, merit have been reluctantly omitted. It is not to be understood that I commend those given as wholly superior to others.

In the preparation of this new edition I have utilized the brains of my friends whose names appear, and of some that do not appear, whose reward, like my own, is not so much expected in material form as in the hope of forwarding the cause of sound railroad practice. All have my warm thanks, as I am sure they will also

VIll PREFACE.

have the reader's and student's ; and I trust that some of them may be moved to take up the work where I cease, fill up the gaps left by my friend Huntington, to say nothing of my own, and present a more perfect work ; at which none will more rejoice or be more ready to contribute than myself.

Charles Latimer,

Chapter I. Ts.ack-laying

PAGE

Careless Work — Usual Defects and their Consequences — Choice of Cross-Ties ; Should be of Uniform Size— How to Lay Them,

and How Not to Lay Them Side Ties— " Sighting in Ties"

— Measuring off for Joint-Ties — Laying Ties on Bridges, etc. — The use of Shims— Selection of Ties for Joints — Preparation of Road-Bed — Instructions for Track-laying — Use of Compass, Level, and Square — Gang for Laying Track at the Rate of Half a Mile a Day — Tools for such a Gang, .... I

Chapter II. Laying The Rails

Damages by Rough Handling — Curving Iron — Cocked Joints, and How to Remedy Them — Expansion of Iron — Usual Provision against it — Caution Necessary in Replacing Repaired Rails — Hoop-iron Shims — Suspension-Joints — Creeping Track — Number and Tons of Rails per Mile, i8

CHAPTER IIL

ABOUT SPIKES.

Wasteful Handling — Driving Spikes — How they are Spoiled — The Right Method — The Gauge : Its Misuse — Oscillation of Railroad Cars : Bad Spiking One Cause — Other Causes — Spik- .ing on Bridges — Waste of Rail-Plates, 26

X CONTENTS.

Chapter IV. Cattle-guards, Culverts, And Turn-outs

PAGE Cattle-Guards often Mere Traps— Their Proper Construction- Laying Iron over Cattle-Guards, Culverts, and Road-Crossings— Laying Turn-Uuts— Locating Frogs— Tables for Putting in Frogs and Switches— Curving Iron Guard-Rails— Measuring Distances by the Hammer— Adjustment of Guard-Rails— Tie- Rods— A Few Words on Home and Foreign Roads, . . . 34

Chapter V. On Ballasting Track

Best Ballast — Dumping Gravel : It should never be done till Road- Bed is Ready — Boulders, Roots, etc., should not be carted with Gravel — Raising Track — Tamping — Dressing off Track — What to do when Material is Scarce — Sags, . . . , , .44

Chapter VI. Elevation Of Curves

Subject of Elevation of the Outer Rail little understood — Important to determine the Rate of Speed for which the Elevation should be calculated — No Invariable Rule can be Adopted — Degree of Curves, 54

CHAPTER VH.

TRACK REPAIRS.

Methods Unchanged for a Quarter of a Century — Routine Ideas — Cheap Section-Masters not desirable— Work on a New Road — Joint-Ties— Lining Track : in Frosty Localities — Clearing out Ditchesand Culverts : their proper Dimensions — Kinks in Rails — Importance of True Gauge — Trestle v/ork and Bridges should be Planked for Foot Passengers, 60

CONTENTS, XI

Chapter VIII. Drawing Spikes — Shimming

PAGE Waste in Spike-drawing — Claw-Bars — The Bull's-Foot — Spike-drawing in Winter — Loss by Carelessness — Shimming : its advantages — Often Badly Done — Shims often ill-made and of Bad Material — Consequences — Shimming in Frosty Weather — How to Manage It — Tamping — Thick Shims should be Spiked to Ties — Machine-made Shims — Shimming under Ties, or upon Culverts, Trestle-Work, etc. — What comes of Shims Working Out— Planks at Road-Crossings — Wood-Piles, . . . .71

Chapter IX. Frogs And Switches

Selection of Frogs and S\vitches — Crossing- Frogs — Bent Switch- Rods — The Throw of Switches — Connecting- Rods — Frogs : Caststeel Plate and Rail Frogs — Fastening Guard-Rails — Short Guard-Rails — Useless Tinkering, *. 81

Chapter X. Patterns Of Rails — Joints

Diagrams of Rails most in Use — Mode of Building a Pile for Rolling Rail — Weight of Rails to be in Proportion to Tonnage — Joints — Engravings of Joint-Fastenings — Nut-Locks, . . 91

Chapter XI. Renewing Ties— Shifting Iron

The Work not so Simple as it Looks — Needs to be done Intelligently — Difference of Ties — How Track is Affected by Changing Ties— Uses for Old Ties — Shifting Iron— When Ends are Broomed — Step-Chairs for Laying Repaired Iron — Adjusting Repaired Rails — Spike-drawing — Preserving the Gauge — Uncurved Iron for Curves,. 97

Xll CONTENTS.

Chapter XII. Snow And Ice

PAGE Snow-Ploughs Insufficient — Jealousy of Master-Mechanics a Hindrance to their Improvement— Other Reasons — Clearing the Flange-Way — Some Methods of Doing This, .... 107

CHAPTER XIIL

ON FIRE AND WATER AS ENEMIES — ALSO ON PRESERVING FENCES.

Washing Away of Embankments — Instance of Neglect and its Consequences — Vigilance Needed at the Season of Freshets — Duty of Section-Masters — Power of Water Not Fully Realized by Section-Men — Action of Water in Deep Cuttings — Surface Ditches — Hand-Car Practice — Fires : Burning Waste ; Bridge- Burning and its Causes — Breaks in Fences may be Hidden by Weeds — Falling Trees — Danger of Leaving Fences Broken — Tool-Houses, 112

Chapter XIV. On Railroad Accidents

Preventable and Non-preventable Accidents — Illustrated Newspaper Critics — A Word to Newspaper Men — What Accidents May be Classed as Unavoidable — Collisions : From Breaking of Car-Couplings ; From Misunderstanding by Train-Men ; Between Gravel and Passenger Trains — Cheap and Ignorant Labor — Prompt Use of Lights — Narrative of a Collision — Broken (Usually Cheap) Axles — Cracked Wheels— Broken Rails— Who is Blameworthy — Misplaced Switches —False Economy — The Speed Recorder, 120

Chapter XV. Railroad And Highway Crossings

Railroad- Crossings— Abolition of Grade-Crossings advocated — Safety and Economy equally deniand it — Estimate of the Cost of Stops to a Main Trunk Line at a Grade-Crossing— Irritating

CONTENTS. XIU

PAGE

Action of the Great Corporations when Lesser Lines are Projected — Defective Legislation — Outlines of Laws to Check the Evil — Crossings Above or Below proposed — Conditions for Crossing at Grade when Unavoidable — Watchfulness at Highway Crossings especially Enjoined, . , , , , , 134

Chapter XVI. A V70rd To Superintendents And Road-masters

Inexperienced Superintendents apt to Appoint Inefficient Road- Masters — Road-Masters need a Practical Knowledge of Details in Repairs — Their Duties often too Multifarious — Section-Masters need Minute Instructions — Riding in *' Palace Cars " — Road- Masters as Likely to Injure the Road by Zeal for Economy as by Extravagance — The Engineer should Discuss Questions with His Road-Masters, . ^ c . . . . r . 142

CHAPTER XVIL

ORGANIZATION.

Bankruptcy the Result of a Lack of Fundamental Order — Discharge of the Engineer before the Entire Completion of the Road a Fatal Mistake — Incompetent Superintendents — Harmony between the Engineer and Superintendent necessary to the Prosperity of a Road — No " Supervisor " to come between the Chief- Engineer and the Road-Masters — Foremen to Work with their Men — Engineers should Instruct their Assistants,. , . . 147

CHAPTER XVIIL

trackmen's TOOLS.

Variety of Track Tools — Different Weights — Description of Some of the Tools Illustrated— The Cord- CI amp— Track Gauge and Level Combined — Rail -Saw — Track-Jack — List of Tools Required by Track-Gang — Illustrations of Ratchet Screw-jack, Track-Level, various Hand Tools, Rail-Bender or Jim Crow, Ratchet Wrench and Drill, Joyce's Track-Jack, Lakey's Track Drill, ...,-. 155

XIV CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIX

RULES AND TABLES.

PAGE Curving Rails v/ith Lever and Curving Hook — Method of Finding approximately the Degree of Curvature required to Reach any- Desired Object, Point of Curve being Known — Practical Method of Finding Proportion of Frog — Rules for Placing Frogs in Cross-over Track when the two Tracks are Straight and Parallel — Tables for Elevation of Outer Rail on Curves — Table for Determining Degree of Curvature and Elevation of Outer Rail by Versed Sine of 43-ft. Chords — Bills for Frog and Switch Timbers, 162

APPENDIX I.

Rules for the Government of Track and Bridge Repairers, adopted for the Atlantic & Great Western Railroad, including *' General Instructions to be followed in the Maintenance of Track " and *' Instructions for Track-laying," 187

APPENDIX II.

Rules and Instructions for the Government of Trackmen on the Louisville & Nashville and South & North Alabama Railroads, with Tables foi Putting in Frogs and Switches, and Bills of Switch Timbers for the 5-ft. Gauge, . . . .207

APPENDIX III.

Specifications for a Perfect Sub-Division on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 249

APPENDIX IV.

The French Metric System, 254

CONTENTS, XV

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Steel-rail Frog — Switch-Stand — Semaphore Signal — Steel rail Frog- Crossing — Malleable Iron Head Chair — Sections of Rail and Rail- Joints used on the Atlantic & Great Western, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati & St. Louis, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pennsylvania, the Erie, and the Louisville & Nashville Railroads — Ground Switch Lever Stand— Ordinary Fish-Plate — The Fisher Joint— Double Joint, Atlantic & Great Western Railroad— Latimer's Safety-Guard for Trains — Reinforced Joint used on Pennsylvania Railroad — Lindenthal's Suspended Rail-Joint — Cumming's Crossing — Cumming^s Frog — Mansfield Elastic Frog — Morden's T-Rail Crossing — Morden's T- Rail Line Frog — Brahn's Main-Line Spring Frog — Brahn's Detachable Steel-rail Frog;

The Road-Master's Assistant.

Chapter I. Track-laying

Careless Work — Usual Defects and their Consequences — Choice of Cross-ties ; Should be of Uniform Size — How to Lay Them, and How Not to Lay Them— Side Ties — *' Sighting in Ties " — Measuring Off for Joint Ties — Laying Ties on Bridges, etc. — The use of Shims- Selection OF Ties for Joints — Preparation of Road-bed — Instructions for Track-laying — Use of Compass, Level, and Square.

To ensure the durability and safety of a railroad great care in track-laying in the original construction of the road is essential. Unfortunately, in our country we are prone to sacrifice everything to rapidity, even at the risk of great expense in the application of remedies to evils which ought never to have existed. In order that a road may be completed in a given time, a system of false economies is thus inaugurated which proves a dead weight to the road, and from which it most frequently never recovers. It is taken for granted that any serious defects will be corrected when the road has once been tested. This is a most fallacious idea ; for there is, in fact, no remedy for some of the defects of poor track-laying. It is true that by ballasting", putting the track in good surface and line, by clearing out ditches and water- courses, the road may be fitted for use for a time ; but if the ties are improperly laid, if crooked iron be laid on a straight line, or if the iron is not sufficiently curved, there is no remedy but to tear up the track and relay it. This is a result not at all provided for in the budget of expenses, and is therefore not entertained for a moment. The road is kept up by ruinous repairs, until finally, after a very much shorter period of time than if the original work had been thoroughly done, the ties are decayed, the iron worn, and the road will prematurely require extensive renewals, and probably a receiver.

CROSS-TIES-

An important matter in connection with track-laying, too often overlooked by railroad managers, is the selection of cross- ties. These should be of uniform length, breadth, and thickness. If they are not so supplied, they should be assorted before they are laid, so that all the ties in a set or a length of iron will be of the same size. If they vary in length the rail on one

SELECTION OF CROSS-TIES. 3

side of the track gets an uneven support and will settle out of surface, while that on the other will remain in good surface, making a disagreeable track to run over. If they vary in thickness it causes trouble in frosty weather, as the action of frost is not uniform, but varies as the ties vary in the depth they enter the ballast. Much mischief has been done by frost breaking away under the thinner ties while it remained solid under the thicker ones as trains were passing over them. The action of water settling under cross-ties where they vary in thickness often occasions a serious disturbance in the surface of track by washing out the gravel from under the thick ties, while it is not disturbed under the thin ones ; thus rendering it difficult to keep the track in good surface. If the ties vary in width, and are laid the same distance apart from centre to centre, the rails get an uneven support, to the great damage of track and rolling stock. Any one standing by the side of such a track while a locomotive is passing slowly will observe that the drivers spring the rail most where the narrow ties are. In passing from a couple of wide ties over a few narrow ones placed adjoining them, the narrow ties settle into the ballast deeper than the wide ones, and the drivers seem to be running down hill. On the other hand, when passing from the narrow to the wider ties they appear as if running up hill ; thus rising and falling as the ties are wide or narrow. If the rails were made of a material which would retain its shape after they were sprung out of surface by a locomotive, they would present an appearance similar to the waves of the ocean in a gentle breeze. Running over such a track is far more expensive than when ties are of uniform width and laid equal distances apart.

With ties of uniform length, breadth, and thickness it is possible to lay a track that a locomotive will run on as smoothly as a ball on a billiard- table, which is certainly very desirable.

Laying ties is not an operation that requires much mechanical skill ; and probably most track-layers would consider any hints on the subject superfluous. Yet there are matters of great importance connected with the operation that are frequently overlooked, and it is proposed to point out here some of the most serious faults that are committed.

Track-layers do not generally take suf35cient pains to lay ties at right angles to the rails ; thus the ends are brought nearer together on one side of the track than on the obh-er, resembling the letter A. At the next space, perhaps, the letter is reversed. This gives a good support to a portion of the rail on one side, while the rail on the opposite side has no support ; and as these conditions are reversed in the next

LAYING TIES, 5

space, a disagreeable rocking motion is given to the trains, which occasions unnecessary wear to track and rolling stock."^ Ties should be laid at right angles with the rail, with a view to giving the rail a continuous uniform support through its entire length.

Joint-ties should be of equal width and laid the same distances from the end of the rail. It \till be observed that the ends of rails, at all joints having joint-ties properly laid, will be in good order ; while those having one joint-tie nearer than the other to the end of the rail will be battered and broomed, being subjected to a pounding from every wheel that passes. By paying proper attention to laying joint-ties the iron will last much longer than when laid in a careless manner, and it would be a great saving to railroad companies if the managers would see that more care is exercised in this respect than is generally given.

"SIGHTING IN TIES."

Almost every one has a " way of his own " of doing certain kinds of work, and every one considers his method the best. It is the practice of some engineers to set grade-stakes 20 feet apart for laying ties. This is unnecessary labor for the engineers, and, moreover, it is inconve-

* In addition to this the track cannot be kept in perfect gauge when ties are laid diagonally.— C. L.

THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT.

SIGHTING IN TIES, 7

nient for those who lay the ties. The men who lay the leading ties must handle a straight-edge 21 feet in length — a difficult proceeding, especially in windy weather. It is a slow and tedious operation to place each end of a straight-edge on the grade-stakes. A more ready method of laying the ^* leading ties '' is to ** sight them in '* by the use of " target-boards.'* These boards are shown in the annexed cut. They are constructed by taking a board 8 or lo inches in width and the length of the ties to be laid. Near one end a leg, 3^ or 4 feet in length, made of a strip of board, is fastened. At the same distance from the other end is a clasp and thumb-screw. An iron rod passes through the clasp and is driven into the ground far enough to support the board steadily. Two boards like Fig. I are. required, which should be painted white, with a black stripe half an inch wide on the upper edge.

With this arrangement it is only necessary to set one grade-stake opposite each centre-stake, 100 feet apart. Place the leg of the target-board on the grade-stake ; then drive the rod into the ground sufficiently to hold the board steadily. If on a straight line, level the board, and secure it in place by the thumb-screw. If on a curve, first level the board, then elevate the required distance by the y^ inch, ^,or inch marks on the rod Place another board like this at the next grade-stake, and you are now ready to proceed. The target is made by mortising a standard into a block. A cross-piece at the' top of the standard is painted like the target-board. Place this upon the tie after it is in place. Of course, if the top of the target, when placed on the tie, coincides with the two boards, the tie is right. A sprightly lad, ten or twelve years old, can, after a little practice, sight with great accuracy and rapidity.

By this process the leading ties can be laid near enough together, so that a short straight-edge may be used to lay the intermediates. When sufficient leading ties have been laid between the target-boards, the rear board may be moved ahead, ''jumping '' the other board like playing checkers. The distance between the leg and the rod of the target-board should be equal to the gauge of the track. On curves the grade-stakes should be set on the inner side.

This method relieves the engineers of an immense amount of unnecessary labor, and track-layers who have tried the plan prefer it to any other.

MEASURING OFF FOR JOINT-TIES, ETC.

This should be done with great care, and, if nicely done, will not only save much labor and trouble in track-laying, but will tend greatly to

MEASURING OFF FOR JOINT-TIES. 9

prolong the life of rails and reduce the expense of track repairs. The cross-ties must be properly and evenly spaced, sixteen ties to a 30-foot rail, with 10 inches between the edges of the bearing surfaces at joints, and intermediate ties evenly spaced a distance of not over two feet from centre to centre. When it is necessary to move the joint-tie, the intermediate ties should also be moved, to make them equal distances apart. This will not only prevent the wear of the rails at the joint, but will save much expense in track repairs.

The ties should not be laid far in advance of the rails, as it is convenient, in measuring for joints, to go back occasionally and measure from the end of the rails and correct the measurement, which will obviate the necessity of moving ties after being once laid. The measuring pole or rod should be as long as the target-rail. The length of shorter rails may be marked on the pole. The joint-stakes should be made square and straight. Set the stake ahead of the end of the pole (or the marks, if for short iron) just the distance that is allowed for expansion, and by driving the stakes perpendicularly and firm the measurement will be correct. By exercising a little care to place the stakes in line, the measuring will be more accurate than when driven zigzag. Rails should be of uniform length, except a few shorter ones for curves. In laying lO THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT.

track on curves it is necessary to use a short one for the inner rail occasionally, to keep the joint even v/ith the centre of the opposite rail, or to maintain even joints. In such cases the measuring-pole must be ^' set back '' as much as is necessary. The man in charge of laying the iron should keep watch and notify the *^ marker '' when the iron has run ahead far enough to need the short rails. The marker can thus act understandingly. The ends of the ties on the outside on double track, and on one side on single track, should be lined up parallel with the rails.

LAYING TIES ON BRIDGES, TRESTLE-WORK, ETC.

Tnere are some splendid ' railroad bridges in this country, built at an enormous expense, which are greatly injured because the ties on them are improperly laid. When cross-ties are used on bridges, they should be laid by a mechanic, with great nicety, as this is essential to the life of the bridge. In adzing them down to a uniform thickness great care should be taken that there is not the slightest variation ; for, although it is usual to use sawed ties on bridges, they will be found to v;iry considerably in thickness. It is not uncommon to find track laid on bridges where the ties have not been properly fitted, and shims used to level up with. The shims are often made of soft wood, in which

LAYING TIES ON BRIDGES, II

case they are worthless, or they work out of place, thus leaving the rail with only a bearing on every third or fourth tie. This should never be allowed, as it causes great strain and vibration and injures the structure. Cross-ties should be securely fastened, so that they cannot slip or jar out of place. Frequently three or four ties may be found out of place, and so close as to touch each other, while the rail has no support for several feet. Of course such things would not be looked for on some of our first-class roads ; but they are far too common in this country, both for the good of the railroad corporations and the public.

Under no circumstances should the ties be notched, but, should they be twisted, they must be made true with the adze, so that the rails may have an even bearing.

The ties on bridges, as well as the bridges, should be under the charge of the bridge-men. No ties should be laid on any bridge so thin as to permit the spike to go through into the stringer ; the stringers, except those on the outside, should not be marked or marred with a spike. On all bridges long ties should be used, not less than 12 feet, arid they should be 5 inches by 8 inches, broadside downwards, notched carefully over each tie, not over 3 inches apart, and bolted every 6 feet, so as to avoid jarring in case a train crosses the bridge off the rails. In order to avoid, if possible, the destruction of the bridge, a guard-timber should be notched over the ties i foot outside the rail, and bolted every 5 feet to the outside stringer,