Principles and practices of teaching

Front matter

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Preface To Revised Edition

An intimate acquaintance of forty years with, the author's thought lias enabled me to revise his work without changing its essential principles. In some few instances I have taken the liberty to restate his opinions in more modern phraseology, and to extend somewhat the field of their application.

A brief sketch of the pioneer work in Manual Training has been added to show Mr. Johonnot's influence and close connection with the earliest experiments in this country. The two men, Mr. Love and Mr. Eunkle, who were the first to actually introduce it, were life-long friends of Mr. Johonnot, with whom he often held counsel.

In my revision I have also noted and emphasized two points made by Mr. Johonnot, which, though not new, had not before received adequate attention : First, the interdependence of the whole body of knowledge is progressively taught in every chapter of his book, and its co-ordination in the Course of Study is continually kept in mind and insisted upon. In view of this

unity of knowledge, the shallow complaint so often

xi xii PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.

heard in " high places," that the schools teach too many subjects, is seen to be unworthy of notice.

The second point I have noticed is the peculiar importance accorded by Mr. Johonnot to the word incidental. It appears constantly on the scene, now in connection with the training of the intellect, especially when he treats of language in its use, again in the field of taste, and notably in the domain of morals. He evidently distrusts the free use of dogma, and would in a large measure rely for the finer spiritual issues on the culture that " cometh not with observation."

I wish further to state that "markings" and examinations played an insignificant part in his scheme of education. He early realized the many evils incident to stated examinations, and, besides, found them of no educational value. Having the courage of his opinions, as was his habit, he acted on this conviction, and dispensed with them altogether.

In the controversy between Natural Science and Language he could not take part, since he fully appreciated the value of both. Between the two great classes into which the realm of knowledge is divided — Natural Science and The Humanities — he saw no cause for rivalry, and assigned to each a place in the Course of Study, under one form or another, throughout the whole school course. Naturally, he drew special attention to such departments as had suffered most from

PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION. xm *

neglect, viz., Natural Science, Literature, Music, and the Manual Arts, but tie expressly and emphatically claimed fully half the time for The Humanities. True, he discarded the old methods, which fed the pupil on the mere dry bones of every subject, and substituted a nurture fruitful of spiritual growth.

I need not call attention to the fact that Mr. Johonnot not only treated at length of the subject-matter of instruction ; he consistently advocated the " scientific method " as applicable to all branches of knowledge, to The Humanities as well as to Natural Science. He chose not to belittle a method as old as common sense by dubbing it either Pestalozzian or Baconian.

Finally, I would call attention to the fact that Mr. Johonnot set up no claim to originality ; at the same time he was in no sense a " disciple." He did not presume to call the principles he advocated new. Thinkers in ages long past had stated them, but the schools, public and private, and the colleges as well, had not only ignored them : they had nullified them.

Sarah Evans Johonnot.

September 1, 1896.

Preface To First Edition

Experience is beginning to show that teaching, like every other department of human thought and activity, must change with the changing conditions of society, or it will fall in the rear of civilization and become an obstacle to improvement.

Teachers imbued with modern thought, in comparing the ideals which such thought suggests with the actual results of their efforts in the ordinary routine of instruction, have become dissatisfied; and intelligent outside observers have seen with great concern the continual divergence of education from practical affairs.

Efforts to remove these difficulties have usually been directed toward reforming the methods of presenting the ordinary topics, rather than toward a more radical change ; and hence there have grown up a great number of empiric methods, which have found expression in manuals for teachers and in text-books. These have all contributed something to the solution of the problem, and in the aggregate have been of great- value to education, especially in the primary grades.

But the remedies have proved inadequate, and the

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PREFACE. xv

dissatisfaction remains, taking the form of a widespread feeling that, in some way, the schools are ont of joint with the times, and that the instruction which they afford is not the highest and best, either as a disciplinary force, or as a preparation for the duties and occupations of life. This feeling gives rise to a demand that some means shall be devised by which education may profit by the results of modern science and philosophy, and once more take rank as a leading force in civilization.

To meet this demand, the changes required are organic and fundamental, and include the matter which shall be made the basis of instruction and the order of presenting the several subjects, as well as the methods to be pursued.

In this volume, an endeavor has been made to examine education from the standpoint of modern thought, and to contribute something to the solution of the problems that are forcing themselves upon the attention of educators. To these ends, a concise statement of some well-settled principles of psychology has been made, and a connected view of the interdependence of the sciences given, to serve as a guide to methods of instruction, and to determine the subject-matter best adapted to each stage of development.

The systems of several of the great educational

reformers have been analyzed, with a view to ascertain xv j PREFACE.

precisely what each has contributed to the science of teaching, and how far their ideas conform to psychological laws ; and an endeavor has been made to combine the principles derived from both experience and philosophy into one coherent system.

Several of the topics are examined from different points of view, involving a degree of repetition ; but in these cases the topics treated either relate to some erroneous notions of education still practised and defended, or the treatment is needed to fully illustrate the general topic under discussion.

Fully aware of the difficulties of the work which he has undertaken, the author presents this volume to the public, in the hope that any shortcomings in the performance may be more than compensated by the thought which may be elicited in a renewed examination and discussion of the subject. Seeking only what is true, he will be first to welcome criticism that shall point out errors of fact or of philosophy.

Ithaca, N. Y., February 3, 1878.

Contents

CHAPTER I. page

Knowledge as Belated to Success : Conditions of Successful Teaching — System, Symmetry, Harmony — Objects of Education— The Means of Education— Divisions of the Subject. Physical Education : Physical Development Twofold — Work and Exercise. Mental Education : The Process of Mental Education — Knowledge the Mind's Food— Character and Knowledge — Modes of Exercise — Knowledge of Eights. Moral Education : Means of Moral Growth — Means of Moral Strength. General Summaet : Scientific View— Effect of Broader Views.

Chapter II

Importance of Mental Science to Teachers : A Common Defect of Teachers— Scope of the Discussion. How Knowledge is Obtained : Ideas of Pressure- Ideas in Eegard to the Surface of Objects — Ideas in Eegard to Flavor— Ideas in Eegard to Odor— Ideas in Eegard to Sound — Ideas in Eegard to Light and Color— The Senses to be Cultivated — Sensation — Attention — Treatment of Attention — Perception— Nature of Percepts— Treatment of Perception. How Knowledge is Eetained : Arbitrary Memory — Suggestive Memory — Associative Memory — Likenesses — Unlikenesses— Dependence — Abuse of Memory — The Eight Use of Memory — Perception and Memory — Eecollection. How Knowledge is Used : Imagination — The Depreciation of this Faculty — A Highly Practical Faculty— Dependence of Imagination — Treatment of Imagination — Eeason — Judgment. Mixed Mental Processes: Comparison— Conception. Order in Mental Development : Principles Confirmed by Observation — Age an Important Consideration. Expression as Eelated to Mental Development : Position Illustrated — The Twofold Office of Language— Importance of Cultivating Language.

CHAPTER m.

General View of Present Practices : "Wrong Practices — Examples — Eote-Learning— Nervous Action— Semi-Reflex Action— Studies too Difficult— Faults of Omission. Eace and Individual Growth : Historical Kxamples. Objective or Inductive Method: Perception — Comparison- Grouping — Objective Classification— Generalization — Law, Principle, Definition— Examples — Benefits of the Objective Method — Spirit of Modern Science.

CHAPTER TV".

Subjective Course of Instruction . . . . .63

The Subjective Method : Definition— Examples — Divisions of a Subject — Imperfect Divisions— Subjective Classification — Illustrations— Opposing xviii CONTENTS

PAGE

Theories — Scientific View — Definition of Divisions — Subdivisions. Characteristics op the Subjective Course : Kelations to Development — Relations to Knowledge — Place in the Educational Course— Misuse of the Subjective Method. The Objective and Subjective Courses Combined : The Two Courses as Related to Discovery and Application — The Two Courses as Related to the Teacher's Work — Errors of Reversing the Two Courses. Corollaries : Sources of Primary Ideas — Training the Senses — Securing Attention — Cultivating Perception — Exercises in Memory — Advanced Instruction— Ideas and Words— Tha Steps of Instruction— Exercise— Completed Processes.

CHAPTER V.

General View of the Subject : False Philosophy — Introduction of Object-Lessons — Practical Mistakes — Reaction against Object-Teaching— Real Nature of Object-Lessons. Value of Object-Lessons : Qualities of Objects— The Physical Sciences—" How not to do it"— Ideal Objects —Order in Thinking— The Ideal and the Real— Interest in Study— Verification of a Law. Summary : Cautions to be Observed — Limits of Object-Teaching—Additional Caution— Conclusion.

CHAPTER VI.

Relative Value of the Different Branches of Instruction . 84 The End of Education: Practical Questions— Responsibility for Change — Conditions of Change. Real and Apparent Knowledge: Relations of Language — Relations of Mathematics — Direct and Incidental Acquirement — Kinds of Knowledge Required— Branches of Real Knowledge. The Branches as Related to Development : Natural Science as Promoting Development — The Discipline of Memory — The Humanities as Promoting Development — Discipline of the Reflective K acuities — General Effect of Real Knowledge— The Discipline of Conduct. The Branches as Related to Uses: Uses of Natural Science -Natural Science and Industry — Ubiquity of the Elements of Natural Science — Uses of the Humanities -Conditions of their Successful Use. Special Studies ; Importance of History— Chronology — Philology — Archaeology— What is Gained. Foreign Languages : Elementary Study — Foreign Literature — Comparative Philology. The Ancient Languages: Advantages Claimed— Difficulties Encountered — Mental Discipline— Schiller's Opinion. Summary in Regard to Language. General Summary.

CHAPTER VII.

Schools of the Olden Time : Effect of Printing upon Education— Teachers Employed— Value of Learning to Read— Ideal Schools. Pestalozzf s Career : Philanthropic Views— The Ideal Reduced to Practice- Experiments at Neuhof— Condition of the Country — School at Stanz — Condition of the School — Things and Representatives — Intellectual Success—Moral Success — School at Burgdorf — School at Yverdon. Pestalozzi's Principles : Order in Mental Growth— Home Education — The Influence of Mothers — Mistakes in Application — Education of Mothers — Study of Children— Training Imbeciles— Basis of Experience— Object- - Teaching— Practical Objections— Conduct and Character— Growth of the System.

CHAPTER VIII.

Fruit of Prstalozzi's Principles : Education through Work — Agricultural Schools— Limitations of these Schools. I he Work of Froebel : Philanthropic Motives— Development of the Kindergarten — Obscurity

CONTENTS. xix

PAGE

of Expression. Kindergarten Principles : Inherited Powers and Tendencies — Education should Commence Early — Education Based on Self- Activity — Spontaneous Activity, or Play — school Exercises should give Pleasure — Physical and Mental Activity combined — Harmonious Development of the Powers — The Schools demanded by these Principles. Practical Kindergarten Work: The Kind of Play— The Method of Play — Original Work — Singing— Playing in the Dirt — The Law of Order— Study of the System. The Kindergarten at St. Louis : Necessity of Study and Experiment— Scope of Education — Scope of the Kindergarten — Delicate Adjustments — Philosophy Involved —Questions to be Settled.

CHAPTER IX.

Agassiz; and Science in its Relations to Teaching . .135

The Scope and End of Science : Philosophy and Utility— Prof. Tyndall's Opinion — Another View — Prof. Huxley's Opinion — Antagonisms Harmonized—Incentive to Investigation. Methods of Science : Scientific Method in Teaching— Defects in Teaching which rcience Remedies— Waking up Mind — Growth of the Scientific Principle. Agassiz's Work : Early Life — Love of Nature — Vacation Studies — Study of the Glaciers— Spirit of his Work— The Old Methods Distrusted— Reformation Begun— The School at Penikese— A New Era — Unfinished Plans. Summary of Agassiz's Principles : Training the Observing Powers — Importance of Hand- Work — Science the Basis of Education — Knowledge Necessary for Discipline — Authority in Science and Education — Thoroughness in Work and Study - Scientific Object-Lessons — Corroborative Views — Uses of Hypotheses — Value of Hypotheses — Hypotheses in Education.

CHAPTER X.

Introductory. Memorizing : Chinese Schools — The Monkish System — English Schools — Grounds of Defense— Securing Attention — Training the Memory — Judgment of Study — Cultivation of Language — Future Use. The Study of Books : Ideas of what Constitutes an Educated Man — r l he Worship of Books— Evils resulting from the Abuse of Books —The Place of Text-Books— The Necessity of Text-Books— The Proper Use of Text- Books —Increased Demand for Text-Books. The Study of Things : Cultivation of Perception— Basis of Experience— Materials of Thought. Experiment and Work : Technical Schools — Superiority of Educated Workmen— Work in the Kindergarten— The Next Step Demanded — Manual Training — Hand and Brain Culture. General Summary.

CHAPTER XI.

Physical .Culture . . . . . . .178

Introductory : Opposing Theories — Factors of Physical Culture— Scope of Instruction— Preparation on the Part of Teachers. Food : Kinds of Food — Limitations — Quality of Food— Quantity of Food— Variety of Food— Caution to be Observed —Time for Taking Food — Manner of Taking Food — Miscellaneous Suggestions — Use of Drinks — Pernicious Drinks— Tobacco— Habits of the Teacher. Warmth: Clothing— Materials for Clothing— Eelations of Clothing to Food— Changes of Temperature — Sanitary Suggestions — Houses — Necessary Considerations. Light : Direction of Light — Defective Sight. Air and Ventilation : Sources of Impure Air— Conditions to be Observed— Distribution of Heat— Egress of Air— Ventilating Arrangement— Method of Operation — Practical Suggestions. Direct Muscular Training : Calisthenics — Kinds of Exercise— Calisthenic Apparatus— Time given to Exercise- Caution to be Observed. Rest : Rest of Change — Rest of Attention — Complete Rest— Daily Rest or Sleep— Amount of Sleep — Rest from Weariness.

XX CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XII. page

Nature of .^Esthetics : Standard of Beauty— Buskin's Yiews— Experience Theory — Trailing - in Art. Form : Analysis of Form — Geometric Divisions — Forms Used in Art — Nature the Basis of Art. Proportion : Proportion in Architecture — Element of Safety — General Ideas of Proportions — Ideas of Proportion Applied. Unity : Example in Nature — Unity in Art -Disregard of Unity -Aggregation not Unity. Symmetry : Symmetry in Nature— Symmetry in Art. Harmony : Harmony in Style — Harmony in Nature — Harmony in Art — Want of Harmony. Variety : Variety in Nature — Variety in Art — Monotony in Cities — Contrasted Examples. Color : Standard of Beauty in Color— Complementary Colors — Variety in Color — Attention to Color. Sound : Origin of Musical Perception— ^Esthetic and Moral Value of Music — Tones in Speech — Unpleasant Tones. General Summary. ^Esthetic Teaching : The School-room — School Surroundings — Dress — Habits and Manners. Drawtjsg : Muscular Drill — Cultivating Observation— Perspective and Shading — Use of Color— Industrial Art— Art Proper — National Art.

CHAPTER XIII.

Moral Culture ....... 245

Moral Aims : Neglect of Moral Instruction— Eeasons for the Neglect. Wiiat is Morality? Basis of Morals. Extent of Needs— Equality of Needs — Basis of Eights— Basis of Duty — Negative and Positive Duties — Standard of Moral Duty — Concrete Examples^- Factors of Morality — Individual Morality. Moral Instruction in School : Force of Example — Manners — Example of 111 Manners— Limit of Eesponsibility — Moral Sensibility— Incidental Moral Lessons — Negative Eesults — Labor and Service — Caution — Eecognition of Well-doing. School Government : Obstructive Considerations — Changes Desirable— Bestraint— Indirect Moral Influences— Dangers of Neglect. Direct Moral Teaching : Precept and Practice — Use of Common Incidents— Use of Literature- Abuse of Literature— Use of History— Defects in Historic Study — Moral Science. Social Eelations : The Family— General Society — Civil Government — Practical Morality — Applications in Schools — Eesults of Moral Training.

CHAPTER XIV.

General Course op Study ...... 280

Preliminary : Principles taken as a Basis — The Natural Sciences — Course in Science— Philosophy, or the Humanities — Literature —Geography — History— Mental and Moral Philosophy— Four Subordinate Lines of Instruction — Music — Manual Arts — Language — Mathematics— Course in Music — Course in Language— Course in Manual Arts— Course in Mathematics — Cultivation of Taste.

CHAPTER XY.

Country Schools and their Organization .... 298 Comparative Standing: Advantages — Defects — Imperfect Grading— Boards of Control — School-houses — Apparatus and Books -Short Terms— Change of Teachers. Qualification of Teachers : Scientific Knowledge — General Culture — The Mental Powers — Professional Knowledge -Self- Improvement. Details of Work : The Alphabet— Eeading — Spelling— Object-Lessons— Eural Affairs.

Appendix

The Story of a School ...... 315

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING.

CHAPTEE I.

GENERAL OBJECTS OF EDUCATION.

Knowledge as Related to Success. — " The secret of thrift," says the late Charles Kingsley, " is knowledge. The more you know, the more yon can save yourself and that which belongs to you, and can do more work with less effort. A knowledge of the laws of commercial credit, we all know, saves capital, enabling a less capital to do the work of a greater. Knowledge of the electric telegraph saves time ; knowledge of writing saves human speech and locomotion ; knowledge of domestic economy saves income ; knowledge of sanitary laws saves health and life ; knowledge of the laws of the intellect saves wear and tear of brain ; and knowledge of the laws of the spirit — what does it not save ? " The need of special knowledge for all the various trades and professions has long been admitted, but practically the farmer and the teacher have been like the poet — Heaven-taught. We are finally coming to see that the teacher, too, must be specially trained for his profession.

Conditions of Successful Teaching. — Before a teacher can set about his professional work intelligently and with assurance of success, he must not only understand its technical details, but he should also have a broad and comprehensive knowledge of the general objects of education, and of the means by which these objects are to be accomplished.

To many, the word education has no definite meaning ; and to others it only implies an acquaintance with certain stereotyped branches commonly taught in our schools. In our day the science of teaching finds its basis in psychology. The laws of mind have been studied and formulated sufficiently to furnish general guidance to the intelligent teacher. The psychologists, through their minute and careful study of the childmind, have discovered and applied the laws which should govern the training of children. Every teacher should by some means gain a thorough knowledge of these laws, and should be trained in their application under the guidance of professional instructors.

The mind, in its development, is like a plant which grows from a seed to its full stature. The way in which the growth of a plant results from bringing the germ of the seed into contact with the appropriate substance in which it is planted, is illustrative of the process by which the inherent powers of the mind are brought into contact with material outside of the mind — thus producing growth : but growth, as we shall see, under the laws and limitations of the mental organism itself.

System, Symmetry, Harmony. — This illustration may be still further applied. The growth of a plant proceeds systematically, symmetrically, and harmoniously. Stem, bud, leaf, flower, and fruit, come precisely in the succession necessary to accomplish the highest object of the plant. Supplied with appropriate food and culture, the progress of the plant ,will be distinguished by symmetry and harmony in the development of its different organs. An excessive forcing of stem or leaf will unavoidably result in a limitation of flower and fruit. These organs, therefore, develop in due proportion, and without interference with each other, and, as a natural consequence, avoid loss or waste of force. The harmonious development of the child must follow a similar law or method. The needs of the growing child change as time goes on. These needs must be appropriately supplied in their due order, else instruction retards development.

Object of Education. — The object of education, then, is to promote the normal growth of a human being, developing all his powers systematically and symmetrically, so as to give the greatest possible capability in thought and action. These powers must be trained to act harmoniously, so that there need be no waste of effort in any direction.

The Means of Education are such agencies as will promote the objects set forth. These means are proper where they contribute to the desired result; they are adequate when they accomplish the result.

All educational means should be measured by this standard of excellence, and they should be adopted or rejected accordingly as they bear this test.

Division of the Subject. — Education, in the broad sense, naturally divides itself into physical, intellectual, and moral. The first relates to the development of the body ; the second, to the development of the intellectual faculties; and the third, to the development of the emotional nature, moral and aesthetic.

Physical Education has for its objects the growth and nurture of the body, and the attainment of bodily strength and skill. Upon the accomplishment of these objects the entire welfare of the human being depends. Without proper bodily growth and nurture, it is impossible to achieve either mental or moral excellence.

Physical Development Twofold.— Bodily development is twofold, consisting of physical growth and physical strength. In thought these two can be separated, but in practice they are always associated. "While growth and strength go on together, each increment or step of growth must precede an increment or step of strength.

Physical growth depends primarily on a supply of suitable food, and subordinately upon those other material agencies necessary to the preservation of human life. Besides these external conditions, food must be properly digested and assimilated, or converted into bodily tissue. These conditions fulfilled, the body grows, and is nurtured after growth is attained — food being an indispensable agent, and the principal one in promoting the growth.

Work and Exercise. — The means used to promote bodily strength — the second object of physical education — are work and exercise. While food in some measure produces strength, its chief object is to promote growth. And while exercise in some degree produces growth, its chief object is to promote strength and skill. Both food and exercise are indispensable to physical development and physical well-being.

Physical well-being, however, is only one of the aims attained through physical training. The psychological value of expression through muscular action is not yet generally comprehended, though Pestalozzi, Yon Fellenberg, and Froebel, each in his own way, sought to embody this principle iu school methods.

Mental Education. — In intellectual as in physical education, the two objects to be attained are intellectual growth and intellectual strength : the growth of all the faculties of the mind to their full maturity, and the possession of all the strength possible in each individual.

The Process of Mental Education. — Though the nature of the mind's action is peculiar, the process of its development is analogous to the process of physical development. Food properly appropriated is the means by which the growth of the body is secured. In like manner the mind grows by what it feeds upon, and the natural aliment that produces mental growth is knowledge.

Knoioledge the Mind's Food. — The term knowledge is here used in its comprehensive sense, as embracing not only the subjective cognition, or act of knowing, but the things, facts, truths, or material about which this act is employed in bringing the individual into the practical relations of life. As food is indispensable to

6 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP TEACHING.

physical growth, so without knowledge the mind cannot grow. While the mind, from the first, possesses all the germs of mental power, it is the appropriation of knowledge alone that converts its latent and apparently passive capacities into active capabilities.

In accordance with a theory of education fast becoming obsolete, undue value has been ascribed to certain branches of study, notably arithmetic and grammar, as specially valuable for mental discipline. The teacher will observe that this theory and the methods based upon it are wholly discarded in the present work.

The Character of Knowledge Important. — The great problem of education has been to adjust the course of study in the manner best adapted to nurture the mind in its various stages of growth, and so to present each subject that the mind can assimilate it with the least waste of effort. Or, to state the problem in another form : " What course of study, and what methods of teaching the same, will best fit the pupil for right living ? " Some writers would " darken counsel " by claiming that a course of study dictated by psychology would be quite other than that required to fit the pupil for practical life. Such writers are behind their age, and need not detain our attention.

It will be shown hereafter that the course of study which most effectively moulds the pupil into sympathetic cooperation with his environment is precisely the course prescribed by the laws of mental action, as seen in the growing child.

In his work on moral science, President Hopkins, of Williams, says : " Knowledge is the food of the mind. And as food may overload and enfeeble the body, and is to be received only as there is a capacity of digestion and assimilation, and ultimate reference to action, so knowledge may overload and enfeeble the mind, and should be received only as it can be reflected on and arranged, and so incorporated into our mental being as to give us power for action."

While knowledge in general contributes to mental growth, and while there may be room for choice in regard to the kind of knowledge best adapted to individual development, one specific kind is indispensable, and that is, a knowledge of the conditions of physical well-being. Obedience to physical laws is also a necessity to mental and moral well-being. This knowledge, so momentous to life and everything which makes life worth preserving, includes the careful and systematic observation of all the facts bearing upon the subject; the inferences and laws to be derived from these facts ; and the application of laws, through wisely-directed means, to the maintenance of health.

Intellectual strength or power — the second object of intellectual education — is best promoted by exercise. "While knowledge in some measure produces strength, its chief object is to promote the growth and nurture of the mind ; and while exercise to some extent produces growth, its chief object is to give intellectual strength. The two — knowledge and exercise — are both indispensable to mental development and well-being.

It should not for a moment be supposed that any scheme for the promotion of a true education can be devised that does not involve intellectual work. The improvement of methods of instruction, the perfecting of illustrative apparatus, and all the valuable helps of the best schools, conspire only to avoid misdirection and waste, and to increase intellectual effort, but nothing can supersede the necessity of work as the source of strength.

The Modes of Exercise^ conducive to strength and best adapted to school- work, are the arrangement of knowledge in logical order, so as to lead to the perception of laws and principles ; the expression of knowledge ; and the use of knowledge in directly serving the great purposes of life.

These modes of exercise take their practical form in the arrangement of all the facts gained from the study of each branch of instruction in some kind of definite order. The incidents of a journey are arranged in the order of sequence ; the events of history in the order of time ; and the facts of physical phenomena in the order of causation. The successive topics treated in arithmetic, geography, and the like, are arranged in accordance with relations peculiar to each branch respectively — the arrangement resulting in classification. The knowledge so arranged then finds expression in such language as can be best understood.

The effort of the mind to arrange knowledge, and the subsequent effort to express it clearly, are among the best possible school-exercises for the promotion of intellectual strength. The result of these efforts, when rightly directed, is to put knowledge in the best form for that practical use which still further increases the intellectual life.