The normal: or, Methods of teaching the common branches, orthoepy, orthography, grammar, geography, arithmetic and elocution; including the outlines, technicalities, explanations, demonstrations, definitions and methods, introductory and peculiar to each branch

Front matter

SOUTH-WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOL, i

Lebanon, Warren Co., O. !

The fourth year of the South- Western Normal School i

Preface

Multitudes of growing teachers spend money by tens or hundreds every year, in visiting schools, in order, that by witnessing the operations of teachers of acknowledged ability, they may improve or remodel their own systems. This volume is designed to take a working school on a visit to teachers. It presents to its readers in succession, classes in the several grades of the common branches in actual operation, and the teachers pursuing such methods as have proved abundantly successful with large numbers who have tried them.

The Normal has been undertaken as a matter of

necessity for training classes of Teachers. All

books hitherto written for teachers, being designed

Ciii)

IV PREFACE.

only as reference books, are too general to be used as text books. If Teaching is a science, it can be taught as a science ; and text books can be used with as much advantage as in other sciences. As the work has progressed, the different Parts have been brought to the test in Classes of Teachers, and have been found greatly to facilitate the peculiar duties and labors of the Normal School.

The different Parts, as they have appeared from time to time, have been used by many hundreds of teachers as Guide-books in their school-room duties, being consulted, more or less, daily, for hints and aids in the management of the several classes. From many such teachers, in the different grades of schools, both public and private, the author has received encouraging assurances of the utility, the necessity of the work. In numerous instances teachers, aided by its directions and suggestions, have remodeled their entire operations, and from very indifferent materials, as they had supposed, have been able to reconstruct and build up an efficient and successful system.

The Parts on Geography, Grammar, and Arithmetic, are used by pupils as well as teachers, for

PREFACE. V

reference books in the preparation of their lessons ; the classifications and demonstrations affording aid in the thorough investigation of each of these branches.

The Second and Sixth Parts are designed to be used as text books in Reading and Speaking; though prepared for Teachers' Classes in the Normal School, they will be found none the less suitable for classes in Reading and Speaking in any Echool.

Though the special methods of only the branches mentioned on the title page are given in this volume, the General Method described in connection with teaching advanced classes in Grammar in Part III, is equally applicable to the Higher Branches.

Fellow Teachers, should any one of you make a panorama of the school under your special charge, or the system of schools under your general supervision, painted on successive pages in word pictures, as I have endeavored to do, please let me know ; I shall wish to obtain a sight of it.

I have already been amply compensated for the labor and expense bestowed in the preparation and

VI PREFACE.

publication of the Normal ; and should the bound

volume meet with the same cordial reception from

my brethren, which has greeted the several Parts

as they have successively appeared, I shall surely

have abundant reason to feel that " my labor has

not been in vain." a. h.

South- We STERN Normal School, Lebanon, 0., Jan. 1859.

P A RT I.

CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE:

OR, SCIENCE,

Introduction

Knowledge is that wliich is already known by the individual,^ or which he may certainly know by study. In a mor.e general sense, it is that which is already known by any one of the human species ; and henee may be known by many others.

All else is mystery. The limits of knowledge are constantly enlarging, but mystery, instead of diminishing becomes still more enlarged. Mysterious, unanswerable problems rise on every side. For every new"^fact that is acquired by accident or investigation, many new mysteries present themselves to the inquirer. This will be found to be true in every direction. The man of few thoughts has few difficulties or doubts ; the idiot, none. But as the boundary of thought increases by its own activity, innumerable queries spring up on every side, some of which are generalized with previous queries and their answers, and are thus solved or explained ; others, however, are retained for generalization and solution when a sufficient number of other truths of similar kind are clustered or classified together to form a law or general principle. He who is most successful in classifying isolated facts, in perceiving identities, similarities, and relations in truths, will most speedily arrive at a satisfactory knowledge of things. Again he who has the most truth already classified has every advantage over him

MTRODUCTION.

whose knowledge, such as it, lies in chaos : in bare, isolated, unconnected fac-ts, or semblances of facts, retained in the memory on the principle of locality or association. Again, it is not a^N^ays borne in mind that truth generalized or systematized is just as mysterious after all. The reference of a new fact to a general principle is commonly taken for a satisfactory solution of the why and wherefore connected with it ; while to the thinlier, the mystery remains just as much unsolved as before ; nay, much enhanced by the consideration.

Take for example the great Newtonian theory, of the law of gravitation. "Why," said Newton, as thousands had said before, "does this apple fall to the ground ? " The thousands had generalized the fact by saying, 'All bodies fall to the earth.' Newton asked again, 'Why do all bodies fall to the earth V The matter remained just as much a mystery after that generalization as before. In solving the mystery he discovered and demonstrated the wider generalization, "All matter attracts all other, directly as the weight of the masses and indirectly as the square of the distance."

Thinkers are now left in more profound mystery than before Newton. For,, why does matter exert this power in this manner? Non -thinker replies, " God has imparted this property to matter ;" just as non-thinker before the days of Newton, said, " God has established this law, 'All thino-s fall towards the earth.' "

Who will then explain the law of gravitation ? that

INTRODUCTION. i)

is, generalize it with other facts known or unknown, and, perhaps, subvert this law, as Newton dissipated the notion that bodies fall because the direction is downward.

It has been well remarked, that there is but one idea in the mind of God, i. e., all facts are generalized or comprehended under one law, universal and eternal. Is that law simply his will ? or is it the inevitable relation of things over which a God of truth exerts no control, but with which all his acts harmonize, and with which he would have the acts of all his creatures coincide ? Who will answer ?

That which is unknown, we call Mystery. But that which is known and not generalized may take different names according to circumstances. It may be called inforr)iation, intelligence, or crude undigested knowledge, which is but a slight remove from ignorance. A man possessing much knowledge in this unsystematized state, may be said, possibly, to be intelligent, but surely no one would call him scientific. Whereas, another, whose general knowledge was incomparably less, who had mastered the principles of one subject, as of chemistry or botany, might justly be called a man of science.

In systematizing knowledge as it now exists, in other words, converting it into science ; it will be found that there are no very well defined lines of division. Ideas may be grouped, facts gathered in clusters and crystallized into sub-systems, but we shall discover before any group is complete and well arrano^ed in itself, that we have numerous truths that are required just as necessarily to complete the arrangement in another group. We may find, indeed, that some sciences, as generally received, may be entirely absorbed by others, either in a mass or by being divided, according to the respective claims of the several others.

In a General Classification of Knowledge, then, like the one presented, there will arise numerous difficulties, from the first division, down through the location of the various branches, according to their natural relations. No two persons, even though equally Avell disciplined, would probably agree in the details of an arrangement of this kind.

With regard to the first division of Knowledge ; viz. Literature, the Sciences, and the Arts ; it is that generally recognized. The nature of things demands this division, and general assent corroborates it. The division of the Ancients was Physics, Metaphysics, and the Arts, The division of the Moderns is. Mind ; Matter, and its inseparable concomitants, power and quantity ; lastly, the Arts. The difficulty, then, is not in the grand division as aforesaid, but in locating the several departments ; much more in locating the various branches. One might claim, for instance, that Ethics belongs more properly in Phrenics, another would place it in Epistatics, as connected inseparably with human governments. We have placed it in Theotics, as being more closely associated with relations to the Deity : the moral nature being the image of God implanted in the soul.

CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: (Literature.

4 The .Sciences.

OR, SCIENCE

( The Arts.

DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF LITERATURE.

' Psychology,

Phrenology.

Grammar,

Phrenics,

Rhetoric,

Logic, Didactics,

'Theism, Deism,

'Theology,

Pantheism, Polytheism, ^ Atheism.

Theotics, .

' Christianity, Judaism, [ism

Religion,

Mohammedan-

Infidelity,

Paganism,

Ethics.

' History,

(Fictitious.

Chronology,

CTrue.

Chronics,

Biograpliy, Travels,

(False — ^Novels.

r

Poems, <

Epic.

, ArchiBology,

I

'Natural,

Law,

International,

Epistatics, .

^ Ecclesiastical.

^ Patriarchal,

[ Government, <

ClASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: (Literature.

^ _ •< The Sciences.

OR, SCIEKCE. I The Arts.

DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF THE SCIENCES.

f Geography,

1 Geology, ol^^S^rf:

1 Botany,

I Zoology.

' Arithmetic,

Geometry, f Abstract,

Analysis,

Algebra,

An. Geometry,

Mathematics,

Calculus. ' Book-Keeping, Mensuration,^

•^ Applied,

Surveying,

Navigation,

_ Astronomy.

( Anatomy,

1 Physiology,

Therapeutics, ^ Pathology,

^ Physopathy,

1 Hygiene,

Allopathy,

I Medicine,

Homoeopathy,

Hydropathy,

^ Electropathy.

Mechanics,

Hydrostatics,

Hydraulics,

Pneumatics,

Physics, ^

CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE

OR, SCIENCE.

Literature.

The Sciences.

The Arts.

DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF THE ARTS.

Technics,

Graphics,

POLEMIGS,

COSMICS,

( Agriculture) I Horticulture, ■{ Pomology, I Manufactures, I Printing.

r Drafting, I Architecture, j Navitecture,

Civil Engin- '- eering.

f Strategy, j Tactics.

I Military En- >- [gineering.

f Painting, I Sculpture, *! Music, I Poetiy, I Dancinor.

f Infantry, j Cavalry, j Artillery, t Naval.

(Pencilling,

■(Photography.

(Engraving.

PRELIMINARY TERMS. 1.

Knowledge. That which is known.

Mystery. That which is not known. 2.

Science. Knowledge systematized and explained.

Empiricism. Knowledge not systematized or explained.

Dogmatism. Opinions asserted as knowledge. .3.

Conjecture. A supposition assumed without satisfactory data.

HyiootKesis. A supposition assumed to account for a fact.

Theory. A supposition sustained by several facts, which it generalizes and explains. 4.

Theory. The systematic arrangement of laws and principles.

Practice. The application of such laws and principles to useful purposes. 5.

Discovery. The act of finding out that which previously existed.

Invention. The act of contriving and producing that which did not previously exist.

GRAND DIVISIONS OF KNOWLEDGE.

Literature. That grand division of knowledge which comprises all those branches, treating of the mind, its nature and communications"; also, the Responsibilities, History and Government of Man.

The Sciences. That grand division of knowledge which comprises all those branches, which treat of Matter and Quantity.

The Arts. That grand division of knowledge which comprises all those branches, which treat of the improvement or embellishment of matter. 7.

DEPARTMENTS OF LITERATURE.

Phrenics. That department of knowledge which comprises all those branches, which treat of the nature of mind, and the communication of thought.

Theotics. That department of knowledge Avhich comprises alUhose branches, which treat of God, and the obligations of man to the Deity and to each other.

Chronics. That department of knowledge which comprises all those branches which involve the lapse of time as a necessary element.

Epistatics. That departmentof knowledge which comprises all those branches which treat of human laws and government.

8.

DEPARTMENTS OF THE SCIENCES.

Geotics. That department of the Sciences which comprises all those branches which treat of the material world, its surface, structure, materials and inhabitants.

Therapeutics. That department of the Sciences which comprises all those branches necessary to the preservation and restoration of health.

Physics. That department of Science which comprises all those branches which treat of matter in the mass ; also, of force and motion.

Mathematics. That department of the Sciences which Comprises all those branches which treat of quantity, and its applications to substance, time and space.

9.

DEPARTMENTS OF THE AETS.

Technics. That department of the Arts which comprises all those branches which contribute to the necessities and comfort of man and beast.

Graphics. That department of the Arts which comprises all those useful branches in which Mathematical Drafting is a necessary element.

Polemics. That Department of the Arts which comprises all those branches which treat of War and Fortification.

CosMics. That Department of the Arts which comprises all those branches which contribute to the pleasures of the taste and imagination ; usually called the Fine Arts.

10.

BRANCHES OF PHRENICS.

Psychology. That branch of knowledge which treats of the mind, its nature, powers and relations.

Phrenology. Tliat branch which treats of the mind, as manifested by the form of the skull.

Grammar. That branch which treats of language, and its correct use, in the communication of thouo-ht.

Elocution. That branch which treats of vocal delivery, in reading and speaking.

Rhetoric. That branch which treats of clearness, force, and elegance, in the use of language ; also, of the invention, development, and arrangement of ideas.

Logic. That branch which treats of thinkino- and reasoning correctly.

Didactics. That branch which treats of the means and methods of imparting instruction : also, of school arrangements and school discipline, 11.

DIVISIONS OF THEOTICS.

Theology. That division of knowledge which treats of the existence, nature, and attributes of God.

Religion. That division of knowledge which treats of the obligations of men to God, and to each other,

12.

BRANCHES OF THEOLOGY.

Theism. That branch which treats of God, as having given a revelation of his will to man.

Deism. That branch which treats of God as existing, but denies a- revelation.

Pantheism. That branch which treats of God as being all things, and of all things as being God.

Polytheism. That branch which treats of many gods, with distinct and conflicting natures. 2

Atheism. That branch which treats of natural law as controlling all things, and denies the existence of a Supreme Intelligence. 13.

BRANCHES OF RELIGION.

CHRTSTiANiTr. That branch which treats of the religion of Jesus Christ, which recognizes the Old and New Testaments as a divine revelation.

Judaism. That branch which treats of the religion of the Jews, which recognizes only the Old Testament as a divine revelation.

Mohammedanism. That branch which treats of the religion established by Mahomet, and which recognizes the Koran as a divide revelation.

Paganism. That branch which treats of the various beliefs of the heathen, or polytheists.

IxFiDELTTY. That braucli which treats of the doctrine of sceptics, or those who do not believe in a divine revelation.

Ethics. That branch which treats of morality, or the obligations of men to each other ; us ually called Moral Philosophy. 14.

BRANCHES OF CHRONICS.

History. That branch which treats of the rise and progress of nations and communities ; giving a narration of events pertaining to each, in order of their occurrence, with their causes and consequences.

Sacred History. That given by the writers of the Old and New Testaments.

Profane Historij. That derived from any other source than the Bible.

Chronology. That branch which treats of the various divisions and periods of time, and the methods of reckoning the dates of past events.

Biography. That branch which treats of the lives and characters of individuals.

Archaeology. That branch which treats of the Ancients, their knowledge, manners, customs, etc.

Travels. That branch which treats of adventures in journeys ; also of the manners, customs, curiosities, and productions of foreign countries or states.

BRANCHES OF EPISTATICS.

Law — A rule of action.

Natural Law. That branch which treats of law as existing in the social relations, prior to any positive precept or enactment.

Civil Law. That branch which treats of law established in society, by general usage or positive enactment.

Statute Law. That form of civil law established by legislative power ; also, recorded and published as law.

Common Law. That form of civil law established by general usage, and recognized by the decisions of courts.

International Law. That branch which treats of the regulation of the intercourse of nations.

Ecclesiastical Law. That branch which treats of the laws established for the government of a church.

Government — A method of administering law.

Patriarchal Government. That in which the law is administered by the head of the family or tribe, called a Patriarch, Chief, Shiek, etc.

Absolute Monarchy. That form of government in which the will of the sovereign is unrestrained by legislative enactment.

Limited Monarchy. That form of government in which the power of the sovereign is restrained by a constitution and laws.

Democracy. That form of government in which the people choose their own rulers, and make their own laws.

Republic. That form of government in which the people choose their own rulers ; also, representatives to make their laws. It is also called a Representative Democracy. 16.

BRANCHES OF GEOTICS.

Geography. That branch which treats of the earth's surface ; also, of the phenomena of land, water, and atmosphere.

Geology. That branch which treats of the structure of the earth and the causes of the existing arrangement of the mineral masses in the earth's crust.

Mineralogy. That branch which treats of the inorganic materials of the earth ; their composition, properties, relations and classification ; also, of the means of determining them.

Chemistry. That branch which treats of the elements of matter; their nature and properties; their laws of combination and decomposition ; also, of the means of combining and separating them.

Botany. That branch which treats of plants ; their habits, habitations, uses, and classification ; also, of the means of determining them.

ZooLOOY. That branch which treats of animals; their structure, habits, habitations and classification ; also, of the succession and distribution of the various classes, orders, genera, and species on the Earth.

17.

BRANCHES OF THERAPEUTICS.

Anatomy. That branch which treats of the different parts of organized bodies.

Physiology. That branch which treats of the functions and properties of the different parts of organized bodies ; also, of vital phenomena, their causes, methods, and aims.

Pathology. That branch which treats of diseases, their nature, symptoms and causes.

Hygiene. That branch which treats of the preservation of health.

Medicine. That branch which treats of the cure or alleviation of disease.

Physopathy. The cure of disease by attending to the demands of the system, as indicated to the patient himself by his feelings and desires.

Allopathy. The cure of disease by inducing a condition of the system opposite to, or incompatible with that essential to the disease.

HoMCEOPATHY. The cure of disease by inducing in the patient affections similar to the disease. It is accomplished chiefly by minute doses of medicine.

Hydropathy. The cure of disease by the internal or external application of water.

Electropathy. The cure of disease by the application of electrical currents to the system, or part affected.

MoTORPATHY. The cure of disease by rubbing or kneading the parts affected. 18.

DIVISIONS OF MATHEMATICS.

Pure, or Abstract Mathematics. That division of the subject which considers quantity, apart from any particular substance, time or space.

Mixed, or Applied Mathematics. That division of the subject which considers magnitude or number, as applied to some definite substance, time or space. 19.

BRANCHES OF PURE MATHEMATICS.

Arithmetic. That branch which treats of Numbers ; their properties, laws, proportions ; also, of the processes involved in their applications.

Geometry. That branch which treats of space, in all its varied forms, portions, and relations ; also, of the processes involved in determining magnitudes in known units.

Analysis. That branch which treats of Quantity, and makes use of letters of the alphabet to express numbers, and of signs to express operations.

Algebra. The application of Analysis to Arithmetic.

Analytical Geometry. The application of Analysis to Geometry.

Calculus — Differential and Integral. That branch of Mathematics, in which inlinitessimal differences are used as a means of investigation and calculation.

BRANCHES OF MIXED MATHEMATICS. -

Book- Keeping, or Commercial Arithmetic. — That branch which treats of the application of Arithmetic, to all transactions of trade ; and of such a record of transactions, as enables a person to ascertain the true state of his business, at a-ny time.

Mensuration. That branch which treats of the means of ascertaining tlie exact quantity of surface or solidity, contained on or in the different forms and portions of matter.

SuJiVEYiNG. That division of Mensuration which treats of determining the limits, and -area of land ; also, of dividing lands proportionally.

Navigation. That branch which treats of the means of directino; and measurincr the course of ships, by the application of geometrical principles, or by astronomical obsei^ations.

Astronomy. That branch which treats of the celestial bodies ; their magnitudes, motions, distances, periods of revolution, and eclipses. 21.

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS.

Mechanics. That branch which treats of force and motion ; their properties, laws and applications, either directly or through machinery.

Hydrostatics. That division of Mechanics which treat of the equillibrium and pressure of fluids at rest, and of their properties and laws.

Hydraulics. That division of Mechanics which treats of the motions, and forces of elastic fluids, as air and steam.

Acoustics. That branch which treats of sound ; its cause, nature, laws, and phenomena.

Pyronomics. That branch which treats of heat ; its causes, nature, laws, phenomena, and applications.

Optics. That branch which treats of Wg-ht, and vision ; their causes, nature, laws, and phenomena ; also, of the construction and use of instruments, designed to modify light, or aid vision. Such instruments are always constructed on mathematical principles.

Electrics. That branch which treats of Electricity ; its development, nature, laws, phenomena, and applications ; also, of the construction and use of the various instruments designed for the development and application of the agent, or the elucidation of the principles involved.

Physical Astronomy. That branch w^liich treats of the celestial bodies ; their nature, their phenomena, the laws by which their motions are governed, the forces by which their motions are maintained, and their influence on each other, 22.

BRANCHES OF TECHNICS.

Agriculture. That branch which treats of the cultivation of fields for the purpose of producing vegetables, fruits, and grain, for the use of man and beast ; also, the raising and feeding of animals, useful for food or labor.

Horticulture. That branch which treats of the cultivation of gardens, for the purpose of producinovegetables and fruits, for immediate home consumption ; also, ornamental and medicinal plants.

Pomology. That branch which treats of the cultivation of fruits ; also, of their preservation, and preparation for market.

Manufactures. That branch which treats of

working, by hand or machinery, any raw material,

as obtained from the earth, the agriculturist, or

the miner, into any form more suitable for use.

BRANCHES OF GRAPHICS.

Drafting. That branch which treats of representing objects by lines, with mathematical precision ; such representations being used as guides by mechanics in construction.

Architecture. That branch which treats of the construction of houses, and other buildings, for purposes of civil life.

Navitecture. That branch which treats of the construction of ships, other vessels, and boats, for navigation, or home purposes.

Civil Engineering. That branch which treats of the construction of railroads, canals, docks, bridges, roads, and other public works. It is distinguished from Military Engineering, which treats of matters pertaining to war.

24.

BRANCHES OF POLEMICS.

Strategy. That branch which treats of the management of an army, in such a manner as to dimini sh or destroy an enemy's forces.

Tactics. That branch which treats of the management and drill of different portions of an army — as tlie fleet, artillery, cavalry, and infantry.

Military Engineering. That branch which treats of the construction of camps and fortifications ; also, of the means of conducting a siege or blockade.

Gunnery. That branch which treats of the management of ordnance, and other fire-arms.

Fencing. That branch which treats of the sword, its use in attack or defence. 25.

BRANCHES OF COSMICS ; OR THE FINE ARTS.

Painting. That branch which treats of representing objects on surfaces, by the proper application and arrangement of light, shade, and colors.

Photography. That branch which treats of representing objects on surfaces by the chemical action of light, on various substances. It is divided into various sub-branches ; as daguerreotyping, ambrotyping, petroleotyping, etc., depending on the material of the surface on which the picture is taken.

Engraving, That branch which treats of producing letters, figures, designs, or pictures, on some hard substance, for the purpose of being subsequently printed on paper.

GENERAL OUTLINE. 27

Sculpture. That branch which treats of carving, cutting, or hewing wood, stone, or metal, into images, to represent real or imaginary objects.

Music. That branch which treats of the production and combination of agreeable sounds, in such a manner as to constitute melody or harmony; also, of the properties of sounds, and their relation to each other.

Poetry. ** The music of the soul." That branch which treats of the production of such thought, and the use of such metrical language, as will excite the imagination, and gratify the taste.

Dancing. " The poetry of motion." That branch which treats of the motion of the human form, in measured and graceful steps, curves, gyrations, and figures, usually in harmony with music, and regulated by it.

METHOD

Of Using the General Classification of Knowlege in

Teaching.

This Classification is an introduction to every brancli taught in every grade of school ; District School, Seminary, or College. No teacher should commence any subject, at least, with scholars who are able to read fluently, and intelligently, without pointing out the relations of that branch to other branches, and its location in the circle of the Sciences. Knowledge exists too much in eddies, and detached parcels, in most minds, even of our better class of teachers. The relations, scope, and symmetry of the various branches, are almost entirely neglected, and they are studied as they are taught, as having no connection with each other ; and not unfrequently, without teacher_or scholar perceiving any

28 GENERAL OUTLINE.

relations existing between his subject, and any existing object in heaven, or earth, save the text-book, and an examination day.

The true Teacher may lay a broad foundation for every subject, outside of his text-book, in the presentation of this, or some similar outline of his subject with its related subjects.

In opening a school, or in commencing a term, when scholars have no lessons prepared to recite, this General Classification of Knowledge, in part, or entire, forms a very appropriate, and interesting introduction, to all the branches to be taught in the school. Scholars, especitilly the younger classes, should not be required to cojiy it all, but only such parts as are more directly connected with the branches they are designing to pursue.

The student of Grammar, for instance, when somewhat advanced in the study, will find new light and interest, in discovering its relations with the other branches of Phrenic s, and the other departments of Literature. The grand division. Literature, with its four Departments, and the Brandies of Phrenics, might be copied into his Note Book or Copy Book. The definitions should also be copied, unless scholars supply themselves with the printed classification, and committed to memory.

Again ; the student of Arithmetic, especially if reviewing, should acquaint himself with the various divisions of Mathematics; and should take a comprehensive view of the whole field, by means of that Department of the general classification and the definitions, given in The Normal ; and tlie explanations which any competent teacher could add.

So in other branches. Teachers and students should in the commencement, and in the reviews, bring up the Department in which the Branch is located, and give on the blackboard, all the sister branches, with their definitions. Should any branch be taken up, which is not found in the General Classification, it will probably find its place as a division of one of the branches given. Conchology, for instance, is a division of Zoology ; Meteorology is a subdivision of Geography ; Uranegraphy is a division of Physical Astronomy.

SCHEMES OF MENTAL TRAINING.

There are at least four distinct methods of training the mind ; all of which should be combined, in order to make a well-stored, systematic, independent, and ready scholar.

Acquisition.

The first of these is Acquisition. Many teachers seem to suppose this is all. They urge their pupils, by every incentive in their power, to acquire large quantities of words from books. Grammar, Geography, " Arithmetic rules," can be recited by whole classes, from one end of the book to the other. Yet scholars may be less logical, less inclined to investigate for themselves, less able to express their own thoughts in their own language, than before the stuffing process commenced.

Acquisition is essential to the full development of the mind, undoubtedly. But let it be the acquisition of ideas, rather than words ; of principles, rather tlian rules ; the power to retain truth, and its relations, ratlier than book enunciations of formulas and dogmas.

Generalization.

The second method of mental training, is Generalization^ Books are, for the most part, systematically arranged, as the author supposes ; though many are wretchedly botched in this particular. The student, however, is not led to see, and appreciate, this system, or want of system, as the case may be, in the general arrangement of the work, and in the more minute details of the several subjects embraced. His attention is seldom called to the fact, that there is any system in science, any where ; and much less, even by good teachers, generally so called, is the pupil required to systematize a subject for himself. The teacher does not generalize, or systematize ; he takes books as he finds them, knowing no mon^ of his advancement in the subject than is indicated by the number of pages he has passed over. Hence the necessity of book-marks for such a teacher. But will he train his pupils any better than himself ? Let such a teacher set himself to work, and make out Outlines, of all tlie branches in which he is engaged, and fill up those outlines as he proceeds with the subjects, carrying out a logical and symraetrioal arrangement to the most minute particular. After having thus systematized the ideas of his Text Book, and the kindred ideas of other books pertaining to the subject, let him generalize the results of his own observation and experience. Thus, he learns to make the necessary connection between his books and his life, between dogmas and facts, between verbal images and material objects. He will then have such a Geography, Grammar, Natural Philosophy, Cliemistry, as he can obtain from no book-store, and to him, as I conceive, immensely more valuable. But 4t the teacher ceases to be a parrot, and begins to use his reason, by pursuing such a course, why not train his pupils in the same manner. Such a teacher, such a scholar, thus trained, has a place for every fact, phenomena, experiment and theory. His knowledge, so cared foi*, is ready for use — comes when called for: he knows, indeed, where to call for it, and when ; and how to apply it when it comes. He now acquires with vastly more ease, and incomparably greater profit. Having Knowledge generalized, one truth is a representative for innumerable other truths. Identities, similarities, differences, and contrasts, the mind loves to seek after, and easily retains. Thes.e afford increasing satisfaction, and diminish, or dissipate the burden, which otherwise clogs the memory, and paralyzes thought.