Methods of teaching: including the nature, object, and laws of education, methods of instruction, and methods of culture

Preface

The aim of the author in preparing this work has been to write a book which would commend itself to all progressive teachers for its practical value. He has endeavored to present only such methods as have proved valuable in practice, and such as every young teacher will be safe in adopting. Where a method has seemed to him either unphilosophical or of little value in practice, the author has not failed to condemn it, however eminent the theorists who have been its advocates.

The book is designed not only as a textbook for the use of Normal Schools and Normal Classes, but also as a handbook for the use of students who are preparing to teach, but have not an opportunity of taking a course of professional instruction. It is designed also to afford help to those who are already engaged in teaching, and are desirous of improvement by professional reading.

While the author has followed a systematic arrangement which will make the work desirable as a class-room textbook, he has at the same time kept steadily in

4 PREFACE.

view the wants of the earnest teacher seeking for practical methods in a condensed form. To such the suggestions appended to the discussions of the various topics will be of special value and importance.

The author believes in applying the crucial test of school-room work under its ordinary conditions to every educational theory, whether new or old, and proving its value or its worthlessness there rather than on the lecturer's platform or in a pedagogical treatise. He therefore hopes that the methods here advocated may be submitted to the actual test of the class-room, believing that if they are judiciously used the teacher who employs them will meet with success.

A. N. E.

Haven, Pa.,) February 15, 1883.

State Normal School, Lock Haven, Pa., \

Chapter II

Law I. The Human Mind Embraces a Number of Distinct

Faculties 18

Law II. The Faculties of the Mind Develop in a Fixed Order 20

Law III. Self- Activity is a Law of Mental Growth 22

Law IV. The Mind is both Acquisitive and Productive ... 23 Law V. Human Beings are Created with Different Tastes and

Talents 25

Law VI. The Human Mind is Finite 26

Chapter IV

1. Instruction and Culture are Mutually Dependent 30

2. Culture is more Valuable than Knowledge 30

3. Exercise is Necessary to Culture 31

4. The Order of Instruction must Correspond to the Order of

Growth 31

5. The Order of Instruction must be from the Concrete to the

Abstract 38

6. All Primary Instruction must Proceed from the Known to

the Unknown 39

7. Instruction should First be Inductive, then Deductive . . 39

8. Ideas should be Taught before Words 40

9. Observation is the Source of all Knowledge 40

10. The Age and the Capacity of the Pupil should Modify the

Part II. Methods Of Instruction

OBJECT-LESSONS.

PAGE

1. The Nature and Design of Object- Lessons 42

2. The History of Object-Teaching 43

3. The Advantages of Object-Lessons 44

4. The Preparation Needed for Object- Lessons 48

5. Methods of Object-Lessons 50

6. Preliminary Instruction 52

7. Cautions to be Eegarded 53

Lessons on Form . . . . \ 55

Lessons in Color 57

Objects and their Parts 63

Qualities of Objects . 66

LANGUAGE.

Learning to Talk 68

Chapter I

I. Objects of Learning to Read 71

II. Methods for Beginners 72

2. The Word-Building Method 75

4. The Object Method 76

6. The Phonetic Method 80

7. The Sentence Method 81

8. The Group Method 82

Suggestions on Teaching Primary Reading . . . . 85

III. The Vocal Element in Reading 101

Quality . 101

Emphasis 103

Force 104

Pitch 106

Inflections , 108

Rate 109

Pauses Ill

General Suggestions on Teaching Reading . . . .112

Errors to be Avoided . . 116

Rules for Reading 121

CHAPTEK II. page

I. Methods of Teaching the Alphabet 123

1. The ABC Method 123

II. Suggestions on Teaching the Alphabet 128

CHAPTEK III.

1. The Importance of Learning to Spell 130

2. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching Orthography .... 132

3. Methods of Eecitation 133

1. The Oral Method 133

Variations of the Oral Method 134

Cautions on Oral Spelling 136

2. The Written Method 137

Variations of the Written Method 139

4. Preparation for the Recitation 142

5. General Suggestions on Teaching Spelling 143

CHAPTER IV.

I. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching Pronunciation . . . 156

II. Methods of Teaching Pronunciation 157

1. The Associative Method 157

III. Suggestions on Teaching Pronunciation 162

IV. Articulation 163

Methods of Teaching Articulation 164

Suggestions on Teaching Articulation 165

V. Accent 166

Methods of Teaching Accent 167

Suggestions on Teaching Accent 168

CHAPTER V.

Suggestions on Teaching Lexicology 173

CHAPTER VI.

I. Principles 178

II. Methods 181

First Lessons 181

Subdivisions of Parts of Speech 196

Modifications of Parts of Speech 207

III. General Suggestions on Language-Culture 222

IV. Grammatical Analysis 224

PAGE

Written Analysis 224

Directions for Written Analysis . . 227

Principles of Analysis 232

Methods of Analysis 232

V. Parsing 234

VI. Syntax 238

Topical Teaching 243

Technical Grammar 243

Words and their Functions 244

Illustrating the Uses of Words 244

VII. Suggestions on Teaching Grammar 245

CHAPTER VII.

I. The Advantages of Teaching Composition 248

II. Methods of Teaching Composition 249

III. The Plan 250

IV. Suggestions on Composition 255

CHAPTEE VIII.

Rhetoric 260

1. Divisions of Rhetoric . 261

2. Diction 261

3. Figures . ^ 261

4. Versification 262

5. Prose Composition 263

6. Punctuation 263

7. Rhetorical Essays 264

CHAPTER IX.

English Literature 265

I. First Steps in Literature • 265

II. Studies in Literature 267

III. History of Literature • 268

MATHEMATICS.

CHAPTER I.

The Value of Mathematical Studies 270

Chapter II

I. Methods 272

II. Principles Governing the Teaching of Arithmetic . . . 274

The Plan 277

Counting 277

Notation and Numeration 278 f

PAGE

Integers 280

Addition 280

Subtraction 282

Multiplication 284

Division 286

The Grube Method 288

Factoring 289

Fractions 290

Reduction of Fractions 290

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions 294

Multiplication 295

Division 296

Decimal Fractions 298

Denominate Numbers 299

Longitude and Time 300

Ratio and Proportion 301

Percentage 302

General Suggestions on Teaching Arithmetic . . 303

CHAPTER III. Algebka 310

Addition , 315

Subtraction 316

Multiplication 320

Division 321

Fractions 322

Factoring 322

Radicals 323

Literal Equations 324

The Force of Signs . . . > 324

Suggestions on Teaching Algebra 325

CHAPTER IV. Methods of Teaching Geometry 328

Geometrical Truths 331

The Science of Geometry 335

Suggestions on Teaching Geometry 337

PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

Chapter I

I. The Value of Physical Science 340

II. The Sciences to be Taught ..' 344

III. Suggestions on Teaching Physical Science 345

CHAPTEK II. page

Methods of Teaching Geography 354

The Plan of Teaching 357

Suggestions on Teaching Geography . . 369

CHAPTEK III.

I. Difficulties in the Way of Teaching History 378

II. Methods of Teaching History 379

Principles 380

Essentials in Teaching History 382

Methods of Kecitation 386

Preparation for the Recitation 388

III. Suggestions on Teaching History . 389

THE AKTS.

CHAPTER I.

Penmanship 393

The Ends to be Secured in Teaching Penmanship 394

Suggestions on Penmanship , 394

METHODS OF CULTUKE.

How to Secure and Hold Attention 406

Culture of Perception 408

Culture of Memory 410

Culture of Imagination 412

Culture of Understanding 414

METHODS OF TEACHING.

PAET I.

GENERAL NATURE OF EDUCATION.

CHAPTER I. The Nature and Object of Education

Teaching, in the modern acceptation of the term, embraces both culture and instruction. It includes not only educational training, but also the imparting of knowledge ; the term is therefore synonymous with the word education. Formerly, the word " teaching " signified substantially the same as the w 7 ord " instruction," and therefore included only the imparting of knowledge.

Education. — The term education is derived from the Latin edueo, educare, to foster, to feed, to teach. Its primary signification, like that of the word "teaching," was more limited than its present meaning. By some writers the word "teaching" has been applied to the training of the intellectual nature alone, while the term "education" has been applied to the culture of man's moral nature.

It is claimed that education is both a science and an art. As a science it investigates^ classifies, and formulates the laws which govern the physical and mental actions of mankind. As an art it applies such means and methods as impart the most profitable instruction in the manner best suited to give both mind and body the most valuable culture.

The process of education involves three elements — Man, or the object to be educated; Knowledge, or the means to be employed ; and .Methods, or the manner of imparting knowledge in such a way as to give the proper culture.

It will readily be seen that the science of education admits of study, and it will as readily be admitted that to be a successful teacher, in the broadest sense of the term, one must understand thoroughly the three elements which enter into the process of all true education.

Man consists of body and mind. The teacher must understand the nature of both of these. He should have a thorough knowledge of the physical system, the functions of the various parts, and the best means of preserving the bodily health. He should also know definitely the influence which a diseased or a healthy body exerts on the condition of one's mind, and also the proper means by which to promote physical health and physical training, so as to make the body not only healthful, but also strong and beautiful.

The teacher must understand the human mind. He must know the faculties of which it consists, the comparative order of development of those faculties, the proper knowledge to be imparted in order to secure the most profitable mental growth, and the method of im-

THE NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 13

parting knowledge in such a manner as to secure the best results. It is no more necessary for the farmer to understand the nature of the soil he tills, the manner of growth of the plant he cultivates, and the laws which govern that growth, together with the means to be applied and the proper method of application in order to promote healthy growth, than it is for the teacher to understand thoroughly the human mind.

It is true that an ignorant farmer, without any knowledge of scientific husbandry, may manage to secure a crop, and, as he gains experience, increase the size of the crop. In a similar manner, the non-scientific teacher may find minds developing under his training, notwithstanding his blunders or ignorance ; but neither the plant-growth nor the mind-growth is w T hat it might have been under the judicious guidance of one who understood his work from the beginning. Skillful teaching, like skillful husbandry, may be gained by experience, but it must be at the expense of the mental growth of the children placed under the unskilled teacher's care. The school-room ought not to be a place where lowsalaried teachers are placed to gain experience by continued experiment.

The Object of Education.

The chief object of education is development in the fullest sense of the term — intellectual, moral, and physical. That man is best educated whose whole being, body and mind, is most symmetrically and harmoniously developed, and whose powers, both physical and mental, have been strengthened and cultured in accordance with the laws of normal growth.

Education embraces Culture and Instruction. Man has certain powers both of body and of mind, each of which may receive systematic training designed to give it perfect development. These methods of training, whether of the physical or of the mental powers, give rise to what are known as Methods of Culture.

In the process of education knowledge is communicated. The 'mind craves knowledge as the physical system craves food. The physical organs digest and assimilate the food, and it is made to supply physical loss, give strength to the body, and develop the physical system. In a similar manner, knowledge is assimilated by the human mind, the mental powers systematize it, and it is made to aid healthy mental growth and development. The methods of imparting this knowledge from one mind to another give rise to what are known as Methods of Instruction.

Methods of culture and methods of instruction are in a measure distinct, and yet each implies the other. Culture is gained by knowledge as physical growth is gained by food. There can be no culture without knowledge, and that system of instruction is best which gives the most valuable culture. Instruction aims to impart knowledge, while the object of culture is to give growth and development. The latter is an end to be attained, while the former is a means by which to attain the desired end.

The art of school management has by many writers been considered one of the essentials of education. It seems, however, rather to be co-ordinate with methods of culture and methods of instruction. Indeed, the three are so intertwined that it is a matter of no little diffi-

THE NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 15

culty to discuss any one of them without to some extent trenching upon the others.

The process of education may be subdivided, according to the powers to be dealt with, into Physical, Intellectual, and Moral education. To these may be added JEsthetic and Religious education.

Physical education has for its object the proper training, growth, and development of the human body in such a way as to promote strength, health, grace, and beauty.

Intellectual education has for its object the training, growth, and development of the intellectual powers of man. It aims to give strength and development to man's mind, as physical education does to his body.

Moral education has for its object the training and strengthening of man's moral nature. It considers the relations which exist between any individual and other human beings. It aims to cultivate the conscience, and subordinates the will to one's sense of right and duty.

^Esthetic education has for its object the culture of taste. It aims to train man's mind not only to perceive, but also to appreciate and love, the beautiful.

Religions education differs from moral education in this, that it considers man's relations to a Supreme Being, where moral education deals with man's relations with man alone.

Definition of Terms.

A Teacher is now understood to be one who teaches or educates. A teacher is no longer one who simply instructs, he also trains.

An Instructor (in and struere, to pile up) is properly one who imparts instruction.

An Educator [educate, to foster, to teach) is one who is conversant with education — one who promotes the cause of education, rather than one who educates.

Pedagogy (pais, paidos, a boy, and agogos, leading) is used by many writers as synonymous with education, including both the science and the art of teaching. It is a favorite term with German writers, though, it is said, they do not advocate the term " pedagogue."

Didactics (didaskein, to teach) is also used as a synonym for the w 7 ord " education." In many normal schools and in some colleges the term has gained a foothold, from the fact that chairs or professorships of didactics have been established.

It may be said of all these terms that none is more full of meaning or more likely to be respected than the two words Teacher and Teaching, which have a humility and sterling worth all their own.

CHAPTER II. Educational Laws

As has been stated, the chief object of education is an harmonious development of all man's powers. This development is controlled by laws which govern the growth both of body and of mind. In some respects man does not differ from the lower animals, or even from the vegetable kingdom. Plant life and growth depend upon fixed natural laws, which the husbandman must understand in order to give the most profitable culture; and, similarly, both the physical and the mental growth of man are governed by laws or principles which dare not be ignored if we hope to secure the best development.

All systems of education must be based on these natural laws, and every one that enters upon the work of teaching should understand them as thoroughly as the physician is expected to understand the anatomy and physiology of the human body or the laws of hygiene. An eminent writer says : " Nothing; is more absurd than the common notion of instruction, as if science were to be poured into the mind like water into a cistern that passively waits to receive all that comes." Sir William Hamilton says : " A liberal education is an education in which the individual is cultivated, not as an instrument toward some ulterior end, but as an end unto himself

2 17 alone ; in other words, an education in which his absolute perfection as a man, and not merely his relative dexterity as a professional man, is the scope immediately in view."

GENERAL LAWS.

The following are among the most important of the general laws of education, together with the inferences:

Law I. The Human Mind Embraces a Number of Distinct Faculties.

The Mind is that which thinks, feels, and wills. These operations indicate three departments of mind, as follows: The thinking or knowing part, called the Intellect; the feeling or emotional part, known as the Sensibilities; and the part which puts forth volition, known as the Will.

A Mental Faculty is the mind's power of doing something or of putting forth some mental activity. The mind has as many faculties as there are distinct forms of this mental activity. Metaphysicians do not agree upon the exact number of mental faculties, some holding that attention and consciousness are distinct mental powers, while others maintain that these are only conditions which accompany all forms of mental activity.

The Intellect includes a number of faculties — Perception, Memory, Imagination, Understanding, and Reason or Intuition.

The Understanding, which is known also as the elaborative power of the mind and as the reasoning powers, embraces several distinct forms of mental activity, known as Abstraction, Classification, Generalization, Judgment, and Reasoning. The term Conception is by some writers substituted for the terms " Classification" and "Generalization."

The Sensibilities include the emotions, the appetites, and the desires, which are also subdivided by some authors into animal and rational.

The Will is the executive power of the mind.

Each of these mental powers has its special work to perform, not only in acquiring knowledge, but also in the matter of securing proper culture and development.

Inference 1. A proper scheme of education must provide for the training of all man's powers. — This is evident from the fact that the development must be an harmonious development. A one-sided education is necessarily defective. Culture of intellect alone, without the corresponding culture of the moral nature, may make a man an intellectual giant, but lacking character he becomes all the more dangerous because of his intellectual strength. The fac^ too, that God has endowed man with these various powers, and that each has its special use in aiding one to attain a symmetrical development, are strong proofs that educational plans must provide for the proper training of all the various powers.

Inference 2. Such branches of knowledge must be taught as will give development to all man's powers. — The wise teacher will adapt the knowledge he attempts to impart to the mental wants of the child. Studies, a knowledge of which may be gained through the senses, will prove well adapted to the training of perception ; mathematics and grammar will be found suited to the culture and development of the understanding; and still others will be found suited to the culture of the memory, the imagination, and the other mental faculties.

Inference 3. The methods of instruction must be such as to develop all the mental powers. — Mechanical instruction or imitative teaching too often results in mere memory-culture. Pupils who are permitted to memorize textbook answers have the memory trained at the expense of the other mental powers, and rarely become successful or profound scholars. Those also who memorize problems and mathematical solutions and demonstrations, or who solve problems without thought and without explanation, violate the same principle of mental growth. No two branches can be taught in precisely the same manner. The intelligent teacher varies his methods, so as to develop harmoniously all the powers of the human mind.

Law II. The Faculties of the Mind Develop in a Fixed Order.

While it is true that all the mental powers are more or less active at all times, it is equally true that at the various periods of life some of these faculties are relatively stronger and more active than are the others. Psychologists agree that Perception is more active in infancy and early* childhood than the other fac-

ulties. The first knowledge that <* cnild gains comes to him through the senses; these furnish all knowledge acquired through the operation of the observing powers.

The Memory, or that power by which we retain and recall knowledge, is also developed at an early period of life, and closely connected with its operations are those of the Imagination, the power by which we form ideal creations. The development of these two follows closely on that of Perception, and from this point onward the three are more or less active together.

The Understanding , or that power of the mind which takes the materials furnished by the other faculties and derives new products and new truths — that power which classifies, generalizes, judges, and reasons — is probably the next in the order of development.

Still later is developed the Reason or Intuition, the power which gives us thoughts and ideas not furnished by the senses or reasoned out by the understanding, such as our ideas of beauty, right and wrong, time, space, and cause.

Thus it will be found there is an order of mental development which characterizes every child. It may be more marked in some than in others, and different minds may develop with greater or less rapidity, but the truth remains that there is a relative order of development in the mind ; and this dare not be ignored by the teacher.

Inference 1. Studies must be adapted to the order of mental development. — It would-be absurd to require children to pursue the study sl such branches first as require an exercise of the understanding, since this is among the last of the me. \ faculties to be developed. Naturally, the first studies should be such as appeal to the senses. Following these should be such studies as are suited to give memory-culture^ then such as will train the imagination, and so on, making the studies correspond to the natural order of mental development.

Inference 2. Methods of instruction must be adapted to the laws of mental growth. — The first instruction must be adapted to the undeveloped character of the child's mind. Indeed, the earliest instruction must be largely informal, such as is characteristic of the Kindergarten, where the child is placed amid such surroundings and under such conditions as will lead him to develop his own powers, the teacher acting mainly as a guide. The next step is such methods as will develop both memory and perception, and so forward, following the indicated order of mental growth.

Law HI. — Self-activity is a Law of Mental Growth.

Sir William Hamilton says : " The primary principle of education is the determination of the pupil to self-activity." A plant grows and develops in accordance with an inherent principle or law. All that the husbandman can do is to hasten or retard that growth by surrounding the plant with conditions favorable or otherwise. The life-principle is there, and simply awaits the conditions which will prove most congenial and favorable to its development. The human mind also develops in accordance with laws inherent in its nature. If the conditions by which it is surrounded be unfavorable to its growth, its development may be retarded; but if these conditions, on the other hand, be favorable, the development may be marvelous. The mind of a child is not a mere passive receiver into which knowledge may be poured. True education is growth, development. It is only by the mind's inherent energy that it becomes strong.

Inference 1. Studies must be sueh as will enable the child to acquire self-development. — No child should be required to pursue the study of that which is beyond his capacity to master. Studies must be adapted to the mental ability of the learner. Much of the dissatisfaction some years ago with results in the teaching of such branches as grammar arose from the fact that the science taught was beyond the comprehension of the learner. Children could not master the difficulties for themselves, and many teachers had no knowledge of the subject outside of the individual textbook which they had studied. The law of self-activity had been violated in both cases.

Inference 2. Methods of instruction should be such as will train pupils to self-developnient. — Training to think is the important part of all good teaching. It is what the child does for himself that gives him culture and strength. The wise teacher does not spend so much of his time in imparting knowledge as he does in guiding the learner's efforts to acquire knowledge for himself. A teacher can do no greater harm to a child than to furnish that child with answers and thoughts ready formed. Every child should do his own work, his own thinking, if he hopes to acquire either knowledge or mental growth.

It is only the unskilled and uneducated teacher that believes children are educated mainly by what they are told. That instruction or that discipline which aids the child most is that in which the teacher acts as a guide only, and permits the child to think and do for himselfunder judicious direction. All teachers should be alive to " the worthlessness of any process of elementary education which does not aim, above all things else, to train the minds of pupils to think, and to empower them to give fluent and accurate expression to thought in speech and writing."

Law IV. — The Mind is both Acquisitive and Productive. We receive knowledge largely through the senses.

Children very early in life observe and gain knowledge constantly through this channel. We acquire knowledge also by reading and by listening to the words of others.

The mind not only receives knowledge, it also creates. It is the special work of the understanding to create new products and bring new results from the materials already in the mind. It is the work of the imagination to create ideal pictures. The mind is therefore not only acquisitive, but also creative.

Inference 1. Studies must be of such a character as to afford knowledge and furnish material for thought — It is not enough that we simply receive ; knowledge must be of such a character as to permit us to originate thought. One is essential to the other? Both acquisition and production are necessary to give the mind proper culture. The knowledge gained by the acquisitive powers must be such as will furnish material for the productive ; thus both may become strengthened and developed.

Inference 2. Methods of instruction must be adapted both to furnish knowledge and to arouse thought. — Much of the knowledge imparted in the ordinary course of instruction is designed to give the student a fund of information. The method of imparting this knowledge, however, must be such also as will create interest, that it may be acquired under the most favorable circumstances. The method of imparting knowledge must be such also as will serve to arouse thought on the part of the pupil. Where it is possible, the pupil should be encouraged to originate new thoughts, give original solutions, and, in general, exercise the productive power of the mind.

Law V. Human Beings are Created with Different Tastes and Talents.

All minds have the same general powers, but these powers are not equally strong or equally susceptible of development in each individual. Children's tastes differ. So also do their capacities for acquiring certain kinds of knowledge. One may be specially talented in mathematics, but deficient in language, while another's taste is for language or natural science rather than mathematics. In either case the pupil will acquire much the more readily that knowledge which is in accordance with his natural taste.

Inference 1. Knowledge must be adapted to the individual taste. — While it is wise in elementary schools to give general instruction at first^ it is also wise, where possible, to adapt the branches taught to the individual capacity of the pupils. If one is specially fitted to become a painter or an artist, every opportunity should be afforded not only to gratify the special taste, but also to give culture to the natural talent. Technical schools must of course do much of this work — polytechnic schools for engineers, medical colleges for physicians, theological schools for clergymen, and so on. In these the special knowledge can be adapted to the individual preferences.

Inference 2. Methods of teaching should vary according to the individual capacity of pupils. — This is true not only as concerns the individual taste of pupils, but also as concerns their individual talent. The bright pupil needs but little assistance, while his neighbor, who thinks more slowly, may need considerable encouragement, and occasionally actual assistance, to enable him to understand and comprehend. The difference of individual talent to some extent characterizes also the two sexes, and the methods of instruction, even in the same class, ought to vary on this account.

Law VI. The Human Mind is Finite.