Outlines of ancient history : for the use of high schools and academies

Preface

This book has been prepared to meet the wants of those teachers who have expressed the desire for a text-book of ancient history in a single volume, constructed on the plan of the author's " Outlines of Greek History " and " Outlines of Roman History." Such a text-book, of course, requires something more than the mere bringing together of separate accounts of the different countries of the old world. It should be so arranged as to indicate the historical relation of these countries to one another, and the contributions which each has made to the progress of mankind. The significance of each country should be estimated by the permanent elements of its civilization, or those elements which, have survived after the nation has passed away. The purpose of this book is, therefore, not simply to describe the growth of separate countries, but to indicate in a general way the continuity of ancient history. The subject-matter contained in the author's previous volumes has been used so far as it is available for this purpose.

The usual division of ancient history into Oriental, Greek, and Koman, has been followed not only as the most convenient arrangement, but as affording the means to illustrate in a satisfactory way the progressive stages in the growth of ancient civilization. The Oriental countries are described to show the beginnings of man's industrial life and the initial stages in the development of government, literature, art, science, and religion. The Greek world is viewed as the historical field especially distinguished for the growth of political liberty and the development of a high intellectual and assthetic culture. In describing the Eoman world, the attempt has been made to keep clearly in view that which has given to Rome its distinctive place in the world's history — the genius for organization,

4 PEEFACE

the growth of an imperial dominion, and the development of a universal system of government and law.

It has been especially the desire of the author to reduce history to the simplest terms consistent with the importance of the subject-matter. But it has also been his desire to develop in the pupil's mind a scientific spirit, not only by emphasizing the continuity of history, but by indicating the relation of special facts to general movements, and the relation of these general movements to the growth of the national character and institutions, as well as the relation of each nation's career to the general progress of mankind. Irrelevant matter has been excluded; and facts have been selected and arranged with reference to their historical significance. The attention of the teacher is called to the " Progressive Maps," which are intended to indicate in outline the most important changes in the geographical history of the ancient world. Each chapter is followed by a " Synopsis for Eeview " which presents at a glance the order of the general and special topics treated in the text. This is followed by a list of " References for Eeading." The attempt has been made not to collate an extensive bibliography, which can be of little practical value to the ordinary pupil, but rather to direct attention to certain chapters — with their exact titles — in books which are readily accessible. The classified list of books in the Appendix will give to the teacher and advanced student further bibliographical aid.

W. C. M.

Contents

CHAPTER . PAGE

I. Introduction — General Character of Ancient History . 7

II. Tlie First Empires — Early Babylonia and Egypt . 19

Chapter I Intkoduction— General Character Of Ancient History

I. Or History in General

Meaning of History. — We may perhaps define history in the briefest way by saying that it is the record of human progress. The study of history enables us to see how the world in which we live to-day has come to be what it is. By this study we learn that the ideas, the customs, and the institutions which we possess in the present, have grown out of what men already possessed in the past. Hence we study the ages which have gone before us, in order that we may understand the age in which we live. It has been said that "to know what man is we must know what man has been.'' History, therefore, in the broadest sense of the word, deals with the progress of mankind — ^the successive stages of human development. We must not think that it is chiefly a story of wars and battles; it is rather a record of the steps by which men have advanced from barbarism to civilization — by which they have been raised from a lower to a higher plane of existence.

Sources of Historical Knowledg-e. — As we begin our study of history, we may ask the question. How can we know the past — how can we find out anything about the men who lived ages ago? We may perhaps best answer this question by first

8 INTRODUCTION

asking a simpler one. How, for example, do we know anything about our own ancestors, whom no person now living has ever seen? In the first place, we may have heard stories about them, which have been handed down from generation to generation. In the next place, we may have pictures or heirlooms or other relics which they once possessed and which reveal something regarding their looks, their tastes, and their character. Finally, we may have in our possession letters or other documents which they themselves have written, or which others have written about them. By such means we are able to learn something about the persons who have lived in the past and whom we have never seen. It is in fact by methods quite similar to these that we get our knowledge of the past ages of mankind. We may in a similar way group the sources of our historical knowledge as follows:

■J|i) Oral traditions, or stories, myths, folklore, and legends which have been handed down from generation to generation. These are valuable as evidences of what people have believed; although we cannot place much reliance upon them as evidence of what has really happened.

(2) Material remains, or relics of the past, such as stone and metal weapons and other implements, buildings, sculptures, vases, coins, and other works of art which bear the impress of the character of the peo])le that produced them.

(3) Written records, such as inscriptions, manuscripts, and books, written either by those living at the time of the events described, or by those living at a later period but having knowledge of such events.

Stages of Human Progress. — From the study of such sources it has been found that mankind has passed through various stages of development — from savagery to barbarism, and from barbarism to civilization. Our knowledge of the earliest stage of human progress is derived somewhat from traditions, but more largely from material relies. These reveal a very primitive condition, in which men evidently lived in caves or in the

GENERAL CHAHACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY shelter of rocks and trees; in which they obtained their food by hunting and fishing, and made tlieir implements from rougli or polished stone. This primitive stage has been called the Age of Savagery, or the Age of Stone.

The discovery and use of the metals — such as copper, tin, silver, gold, and iron — mark a higher stage of progress. Now men began to show greater mechanical skill, to manufacture many new articles, both for use and for ornament, which added to their comfort and hapj^iness. They began to live in artificial dwellings, such as touts and hovels of wood or clay, and to obtain their living bv the domestication of animals and the

Early Stone Implements cultivation of the soil. Tliis stage has been called the Age of Barbarism, or the Age of Metals — including the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.

The use of a well-defined written language may be said to mark the dawn of civilization. From this time men have gradually advanced in industry and commerce, in the arts and sciences, in language and literature, in government and laws, and in all those things which belong to the higher physical, intellectual, and social life.

Divisions of General History. — In studying the facts and movements of history, it is customary to arrange them in cer-

PROa-RESSIVE ISIJ^T* JSTo.l.

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GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 11

tain divisions or periods. This is well enough, if we do not suppose that there is any sharp dividing line which separates one period from another. In spite of revolutions and the rise and fall of nations, the course of history has been continuous. The " periods " of history are not separated by gaps or breaks, but rather are successive phases of development merging gradually one into another. Bearing this in mind, we may first arrange the general history of the world into two great divisions — ancient and modern. Ancient history begins with the dawn of civilization, and traces the progress of mankind among those nations which have now ceased to exist — or at least have ceased to contribute anything to the world's progress. Modern history, on the other hand, deals with the origin and growth of those nations which still exist and are still working out the problems of a higher world life.^

In making this division between ancient and modern history we must remember that these two great periods of history are closely related to each other. Indeed, the' great interest which we have in ancient history is due to the fact that a large part of our present ideas, customs, and institutions have descended to us from the peoples who flourished in ancient times.

II. The Field oe Ancient Histoey

Geography and History. — It is a fact familiar to us all that men are influenced to a large extent by their surroundings — ^that is, by the localities in which they are placed. s/One of_the_cpn^di1dons^ tiie_^^^ proui-c:^^ is a favorable

enviromuent. yTTence the study of geography is closely related to the study of history. We know, for example, that men are greatly affected by the climate in which they live. Too much

1 The term "mediaeval history," or the "middle ages," is often applied to the formative period of modern nations, extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, or from the establishment of the Empire of Charlemagne in the eighth century, down to the fifteenth or the sixteenth century.

13 INTRODUCTION

heat, or too much cold, tends to weaken or benumb their powers. A temperate climate is most favorable to progress. Moreover, men are most likely to advance in those places where they can obtain the best means of living — where the soil is most fertile, and where the earth furnishes the largest amount of natural resources, and also where peoples can most easily exchange their products with one another by land or by water routes.

On the other hand, the progress of man may be obstructed by unfavorable surroundings. A barren soil tends to keep men in poverty and misery. Mountain barriers often hem them in and narrow their lives. And so in the early periods of history, especially, man is largely the creature of his environment. But with the growth of a higher civilization he may rise above nature, and become to a certain extent its master.

The Historical Zone of the Ancient World. — It is in the Old World that we find the first traces of civilization; and the field of ancient histiu-y comprises those parts of Af ncaj^ Asia, and Europe tluit have temperate climates and are drained by great rivers or border upon the sea. -jTo bring more clearly before our minds the geographical limits of ancient history, let us mark out on the map that strip of territory which was best fitted for human progress and upon which the old civilizations flourished. This strip we may call " the historical zone of the ancient world " (see colored portions of the map on page 10). Beginning at the Yellow Sea on the coast of China, let us follow along the line of the Iloang River, then westward along the mountain chains of the Hima'layas, the Hindu-Kush, and the Cau'casus, and finally along the banks of the Danulie and the Rhine rivers to the North Sea — and the line thus traced will mark the northern boundary of this historical zone. Its southern boundaries are, in general, the shores of the Indian Ocean and the deserts of Arabia and Africa. The lands within this zone, in respect to climate and soil, present the conditions most favorable for human development; and

GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 13

they became in ancient times the homes of civilized peoples. These peoples, liowever, were not equally progressive, and they did not reach the civilized stage at the same time.

The Centers of Ancient Civilization. — This strip of territory, stretching from the Pacific to the Atlantic, we may separate into different areas, which formed to a certain extent distinct centers of civilization. Farthest to the east is China, drained by two great rivers, the Hoang and the Yangtze. Its remote situation and the barriers on the west formed by the spurs of the Himalayas, combined to make this land the most isolated of the civilized lands of the Old World. To the west of China lies India, also drained by two great rivers, the Indus and the Ganges, which rise among the slopes of the Himalayas and flow in different directions to the sea. These two countries — China and India — stood nearly alone in ancient times, separated from the peoples of western Asia by the wide, diy plateau of Iran', and hence these countries did not exercise a great influence upon the ancient world.

As we leave the Far East and pass to the West we come to two of the most remarkable valleys of the world — that formed by the Tigris and Euphra'tes rivers and that formed by the river Nile — the one pouring its waters into the Persian Gulf and tlie other into the Mediterranean Sea. Both of these valleys were gifted with a rich alluvial soil, which favored the early development of industry among the inhabitants. These two centers were at first separated from each other by the intervening desert of Arabia, but after a time their inhabitants were brought into contact by way of Syria, so that the currents of their history often flowed together. \/ J But the most important center of ancient civil ization was the^ Mediterranean Sea. VThis body of water formed the world's greatest highway. It was taken possession of successively by the Phoeni'cians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and became an important factor in the development of a wider world commerce and a higher world culture.

14 INTRODUCTION

III. Races and Peoples of the Old World

Race Characteristics. — The progress of mankind has been influenced not only by geographical conditions; it has also been influenced by the traits and qualities which peoples have inherited from their ancestors. The physical and mental peculiarities, the ideas and customs, which are transmitted from age to age, have contributed much to human progress. These inherited cjualities we may call " race characteristics."

There have been many attempts to find a scientific distinction among the ditt'erent races of mankind. They have, for example, been classified according to color, into the white or Caucasian race, the black or Negro race, and the yellow or Mongolian race. They have also been classified according to the shape of the head, the texture of the hair, and other physical features. Science has attempted in this way to discover the pure, or original, races of mankind. But, as a matter of fact, the various peoples of the world have become so intermingled that it is difficult to determine what are the pure, or original, races, and to distinguish them from the mixed, or secondary, races. History deals not simply with the original races, but with the secondary races as well. It looks upon a " race " as any people, whether pure or mixed, having the same inherited characteristics — a common language, common customs and institutions, which are transmitted from generation to generation, and which furnish the basis of a distinct tvpe of civilization.

Classification by Color and Language. — The most usual and perhaps convenient way of classifying the various peoples of the world is to group them first by color. Thus we have (1) the black or Negro race, (2) the yellow or Mongolian race, and (3) the white or Caucasian race. The black race, which is found chiefly in Africa, in Australia, and in the neighboring islands, stands lowest in the scale of human beings and

GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 15

has made no real contributions to the civilization of the world. The yellow or Mongolian race, which has occupied the central and eastern parts of Asia, has made some advance in the arts of civilized life. But it early became stationary and its contributions to human progress have been few. Of this race the most important in ancient times were the Chinese. The most progressive peoples of the world have belonged to the white or Caucasian race. y These peoples in ancient times occupied the most favore d lands of tlie Old World — the valleys of the EupKrates and the._Isrile, and the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient history is , for_the most part, the record of the progress .ofJhese^geoplgSjv/

\\lien we attempt to arrange the C*aucasian peoples into distinct groups, we find it difficult, because they came into contact with one another and were often intermingled, so as to form mixed or secondary races. It is, therefore, usual to group these peoples, not according to their physical characteristics, but according to their language. The study of language, or philology, thus becomes an aid to the study of history. Peoples who speak the same language, although they may be " mixed," are closely related to one another in their culture and their historical development. By the study of their different languages, we are able to group the white peoples in subdivisions which are not only convenient but also useful for historical purposes. "< The Cauc asian race is thus subdivided into the Hamit'ic, the Semitic, ancPEEe~Ar yan or Indii-lviiiopean peoples — or "races," if we wish so to call them. ,

The Hamitic Race. — In early times, the Ham'ites probal^ly occupied all the northern coasts of Africa. But it was only in Egypt, on the fertile banks of the ISTile, that they found the conditions most favorable to their development. In this restricted habitat they put to the highest use the resources of nature and attained to a high place among the nations of antiquity.

16 INTEODUCTION

The Semitic Peoples. — The original home of the Seni'ites was probably in Arabia. This remarkable race furnished some of the most important historical peoples of the ancient world. The Babylonians and the Assyrians settled in the Tigris- Euphrates valley ; and the Hebrews and the Phoenicians found a home on the eastern shores of the ]\Iediterranean.yU£ro in the Ph_cenicians__sprang the Carthaginians, who founded a commercial empire on the nortliein coasts of Africa. y' In later times, the Arabians built up a great ]\Iohammedan empire, which covered the western part of Asia and the northern part of Africa and encroached upon tbe southern countries of Europe.

The Aryan or Indo-European Peoples.-z£Tlj§--P6ople jthat 1 carried ancient civilization to its highest stage were the i Aryans"" or"Tndo-Europeans. / Where was 'the original home of this people is a matter of doubt — perhaps in central Asia, but quite as likely in southeastern Europe. In ancient times they spread to the eaM and to the west until they extended from the Ganges Biver to the Atlantic Ocean. In their progress they mingled with other peoples whom they conquered and absorbed. /But wherever they Avent tliey preserved tlie marks of their common language and of their common primitive culturcw'^ro this i)co])l(' Ix'long the Hindus of India, the Medes and Persians of central Asia, and the Greeks and the'Eomans of southern Europe. ,The Indo-European peoples alsolnclude the Slavs, the Germans, and the Celts of northern and western Europe, whose history, however, is not so important in the ancient period.^ /

Phases of Ancient Culture. — We have thus pointed out the various lands in the ancient world most favorable to progress, and the chief races and jieoples which occujued these lands. Now, as we look over the development of these various peoples, we may distinguish three great types or phases of civilization,

1 The !?eneral progress of the great historical nations has heen from the East to the West, or from the Orient to the Occiden tTTLAjici£|itjaLy.ilization _ first appeared in Asia, and reached its highest development in BuKge. But tlie student will note exceptions to this rule as we proceed. y(^

GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 17

namely, the Oriental, the Greek, and the Eoman.^ By studying these phases of ancient culture, we shall see the successive steps by which men emerged from barbarism and entered upon a higher physical and intellectual existence.

In the Oriental world we shall see the beginnings of civilized life — the first successful efforts of man to subdue the earth and to utilize the resources of nature; the beginnings of science and of a well-defined written language; the first evidences of architectural skill in the construction of great buildings; and the first marked tendency in the direction of great empires and of centralized governments.

In the GreeJc world we shall see a finer type of humanity: a versatile intellect, expressed in exalted works of philosophy and literature; a refined sesthetic taste, embodied in the most beautiful specimens of architecture and sculpture;, and a strong love of free dom, shown in the de velopment ^ of democratic i nstitut i ons. ) ^

In the Eoman world we shall see a more practical genius and a more vigorous manhood; a great capacity for military and political organization; a broad sense of civil justice, expressed in an enduring system of law; a wide cosmopolitan spirit, capable of appropriating the ideas of other peoples — in short, a civilization which expressed the highest unity and broadest culture of the ancient world.

I. Of Histoky in General. — Meaning- of History. — Sonrces of Historical Knowledge. — Stages of Human Progress. — Divisions of General History.

II. The Field of Ancient History. — Geography and History. — The Historical Zone of the Ancient World. — The Centers of Ancient Civilization.

^ These successive phases of civilization furnish the basis of our divisions of ancient history. Other divisions, however, niisjht be adopted. For example, since the earliest civilization was developed by the Oriental nations, fUid^Jlns__was__tal,ififljiE„ by the c/ass/co? nations of Greece and Ro me, v^'hose cu l, tj rff-aLa^ ^fter.wni-d transmilted to the drniHiii peoples, we mlgnt divide ancient history into' tlir (irii'iital, i lassii al. and Germanic periods. - ■'-*'»'~.»«.-a«„

18 INTRODUCTION

III. Races and Peoples of the Old World. — Race Characteristics. — Classification by Color and Language. — Tlie Hamitic Race. — The Semitic Peoples. — The Aryan or Indo-European Peoples. — Phases of Ancient Culture.

Fisher, pp. 1-16, "Introduction" (1).'

Bourne, Ch. 5, "The Value of History" (3).

Diesterweg-, Ch. 1, "Meaning- of History"; Ch. 2, "Uses of History"!;:^).

Ducoudray, Ancient Civilization, Ch. 1, "The Beginnings of Civilization" (1).

Hoernes, Sec. 3, "Characteristics of Human Culture" (2).

Tylor, Anthropology, Ch. 1. "Man, Ancient and Modern" (2).

Keary, Ch. 5, "The 'Nations of the Old World" (2).

Clodd, Primeval Man, Ch. 3, "The Ancient Stone Age" (2).

Starr, Ch. 3, "Food-Getting" (2).

Joly, Part II., "Primitive Civilization" (2).

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Art. "Geography" (for geographical ideas of the ancients).

Ravsdinson, Ancient History, pp. 24-35, "The Geography of Asia" (1).

iThe figure In parenthesis refers to the number of the topic in the Appendix, where a fuller title of the bools will be found.

Chapter II The First Empires— P:aely Babylonia And Egypt

I. The Early Babylonian Empire

The First Centers of Civilization. — In beginning our study of the Oriental world, we may ask, In what part of the East did men first rise from barbarism to a civilized life — in other words, where did civilization first appear? We cannot answer this question with certainty. We may be quite sure, however, that it was either in Babylonia in the lower Euphrates valley, or in Egypt in the valley of the Nile. It has long been supposed that Egypt was the oldest civilized country. But the most recent excavations have brought to light some indications that the people who lived in the Euphrates valley used a written language and reached a condition which might be called civilized, even before these results were attained by the Eg)^ptians. However this may be, these two valleys — that of the Euphrates and that of the Nile — formed at first two distinct centers of civilization. Separated as they were by an interveningdesert, the Egyptian and Babylonian peoples took the first steps in the direction of a more civilized life, each unaided by the other. For a long period of time they were isolated from each other. It was only when they had each broken through their early boundaries and extended their conquests along the

PROGRESSIVE jVLAP ISTo.S.

EAELY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 21

eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea — that is, in Syria — that their civilizations met and were mingled together. The first to extend their conquests to this middle land of Syria were the Babylonians. Whether or not they were the first to emerge from barbarism, the Babylonians, or the peoples of the Tigris- Euphrates valley, were the first to extend their culture to lands beyond their own, and to obtain importance as a civilizing people.

The Tigris-Euphrates Valley. — The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, rising in the mountains of Armenia, flow southward and pour their united waters into the Persian Gulf. The valley formed by these rivers may be divided into two parts — the southern or the lowlands, and the northern or the highlands. The southern part, which has received the name of Babylonia, has its chief historical center at Babylon on the Euphrates. Its most marked features are its soft climate and its rich alluvial soil. The northern part of the valley, called Assyria, had its chief center first at Assur on the Tigris, and afterward at Nin'eveh on the same river. Its climate was more rugged than that of the south; and its land, though less fertile, furnished large supplies of minerals and precious stones.

It was the people who found their way into tlie southern part, or the lower valley, that first developed a civilized state. It is probable that this lower valley was in very ancient times settled by an earlier, non-Semitic race — usually known as the Acea'dians — who laid the basis of the Babylonian culture. ^JBut ^le te r ritory became a t last the home of a Semitic people^Vho" probably cameT fom Aval)!:!, ^^]lo coikiikm-im] aiid ahsoilicd flic earlier peoples, i:a1aiig u] ) their customs and institutions, and Jjgconi ing the dnrrnT|flTif rnn> \[ is this mixed ])eople that we call the Babylomans.xNir hi' date of tlic earliest occupation of

i^ountry bylhe Si^fhites cannot he accurately fixed; but it can hardly be iaterj han odoo n. c.

Not many years ago our knowledge of this ancient people was derived chiefly from the Greek historian Herod'otus and

22 THE ORIENTAL WOELD

the Chaldffi'an priest Bero'sus. The accounts of these writers, so far as the earliest history was concerned, were based upon traditions, which were of course not very trustworthy. In recent years, however, our knowledge has been greatly increased and made more definite by the large number of excavations made among the ruins of ancient cities. The remains of palaces and temples have been brought to light, and inscriptions have been deciphered which show the great antiquity of this people, and reveal much regarding their history, their arts, and their institutions.

The Early City States : Sargon I.— The first light that falls upon the Eu|)]irat('S valley reveals the existence of many cities of more or less iuiportance, each under its own government and ruled by its own king.^ At a very early day tlic rulers of some of these cities sought to establish something like an imperial government, by bringing other cities und(>r their power. So far as we know the first successful attempt to create an empire was made by 8argon I., king of Accad (or Agade), who flourished in 3800 B. c. — the first autlientic date, it is said, in the world's bistory. With Accad as his capital Sargon extended his authority to the upper part of thcMesopotamian valley and as far west as the Mediterranean Sea. Other cities, like Ur and Babylon, afterward vied with one another in taking the lead. But the early cities of Babylonia finally (about 2300 b. c.) passed under the foreign dominion of the E'lamites — a people who came from east of the Tigris.

Hammurabi and the Old Babylonian Empire.- — Although the earliest empire of Babylonia was really established l3y Sar-

1 A few of these ancient cities were Sippar. Accad, Babylon. Nippnr, Tello (ancient Laiiash), and Ur (see map, p. 20).

= The old Babylonian empire is sometimes called the "Chaldsean," becanse it arose in the lower valley, near the home of the Chaldtrans. But it is quite certain that the ("hald.Tans (Kaldl) did not appear in Babylonia until after the fall of the old empire, and durins the time of the Assyrian ascendency. See Coodspeed, History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, pp. 181, 211, 23G, :'.r)l ; also Philip Smith, Ancient History of the East, p. 242.