Studies of the earth. An essay on the figure and surface-divisions of the earth, its geological and meteorological phenomena, and its astronomical elements

Front matter

I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 1

SUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

STUDIES OF THE EARTH.

SECTION FIRST. Introductory

It is said that " the planetary system, in its relations of absolute magnitude, relative position of the axes of rotation, and density, has, to our conception, nothing more of actual necessity than the distribution of land and water on the surface of our globe, the configuration of continents or the elevation of mountain chains."

Humboldt, in writing thus, could not mean that either these astronomical elements or these telluric phenomena are accidental or fortuitous. They are so " to our conception." The law which determines certain astronomical values and the configurations of the earth's surface- divisions is not known : no rationale has been assigned ; their relations to the other parts of the creation have not been traced out. Thus there are two classes of facts, to wit: the apparently fortuitous or chance-coincidences, and those for which the science of the day is able to give the rationale and relations.

The facts of the telluric phenomena (configuration of continents, &c.) are placed under the fortuitous class, and are considered as of paroxysmal origin. They have "arisen (according to Humboldt and to generally received science) out of the conflict of forces acting under unknown conditions." Prof. J. P. Nichol says, (System of the World, p. 171,) "If we interrogate the existing configuration of the earth's surface, we have no choice but to consider it the offspring of the wildest caprice." De Beaumont says, on the other hand, (System of Mountains) that "the distribution of mountains is not at random (au hazard) as is the distribution of the stars:" that is, he had a system for the position of the mountains, and none for the position of the stars.

As science advances, these facts of earth configuration will be reclaimed from the fortuitous class, and united with those phenomena for which a law can be assigned.

There is a oneness of style in the works of nature. Form is linked into nhufouah fhmt thetibovr, as Marmot ">•■'■■ • ■ — — — — —

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.. mam normal Irrrul •■■ Cotuts are rf * » . . , form, — every form gliding gently into other analogous forms, the derivatives retaining the character of the generating type as fully as their positions and functions will admit. As a beautiful instance of this, a leaf declares the form of the tree on which it grew. Its petiole, or footstalk, is an analogue of the trunk of the tree, being comparatively long or short as is the trunk of the tree from the ground to the point of the offset of its first branches. The veins of the leaf, as they extend from the centre or midrib vein, shoot out at the same angle as shoot out the branches from the stem of the tree ; and the veins are whirled, reticulated or otherwise distributed as are the branches. A leaf thus gives a miniature drawing of its parent tree : it writes down on its tiny page the character of the great vegetable organization of which it is a minute appendage. This fact was established in the examination of one hundred and ten species.

This repetition of structure is not confined to organic formations ; for instance, the contour of continents is repeated in islands. Nor is the repetition of form limited to parts of the earth, the orbit of revolution around the sun has at least one of its characteristics (its ellipticity) repeated in the ellipticity of the figure of the earth, which gives the form of the orbits of axial rotation. So the angle of the earth's axis with the ecliptic has its value repeated, under a modification, in the angle of the trend of the coasts, as will be after set forth.

One step has already been taken, by Professor Owen, in unfolding the relations between astral and telluric phenomena. He announced that, if a terrestrial globe has its north pole elevated 23° 28', which is the value of the obliquity of the ecliptic, the horizon of the globe will be in line with the trend of the coasts of one side; and if the pole be depressed 23° 28', the horizon will mark the trend of the coasts of the other side of the continents.

This coincidence has been attributed to the influence of the sun on the cooling and solidifying of the earth's crust, which is considered as having been once fluid by heat.

An original fluid earth, consisting of melted lava, which gradually cooled, forming the earth's crust, is taught by the science of the day. It is difficult for the geologists to give up this hypothesis ; for it appears to them to be necessary, to account for the elliptical figure of the world, for the existence of trachytic or igneous rocks, for earthquake and volcanic phenomena, for the elevation and depression of earth-level, and for the inclinations, disruptions, and distortions of earth-strata ; all these geological phenomena being ascribed (in the phrase of Humboldt) "to the reaction of the interior on the surface of the globe ;" and until this " reaction" is given up, as a cause, the hypothetical fiery furnace within the earth will be preserved, to supply the sufficient force. The

THE EAETH. O

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original fluid earth served also to account for the " coincidence" brought to light by Professor Owen. In stead of tracing it to astral phenomena, this idea was buried in the fluid nucleus of the earth.

This looking down into the earth, below its surface, for a cause of the surface telluric phenomena, has diverted the attention of science, and turned itaside from what is to be presented as the true path of investigation.

These preliminary statements are made in order to indicate the course of thought which led to the results herein to be set forth. This essay neither upholds nor denies the existing hypotheses. It deals with facts. It is intended to bring to light certain phenomena which exhibit the symmetrical arrangement of the earth's surface, and certain facts which point to the relation of the structure of the earth to its planetary elements.

The symmetry of the surface structure of the world has not been altogether overlooked by science. Bacon long ago pointed out the triangular shape of the continents ; and he regarded this instance of symmetry as opening a path to a more extended knowledge of earth-structure. Reinhold Foster developed some other instances of the symmetrical structure of the globe, showing that the southern terminations of the continents are high and rocky, and have eastward an island or a group of islands ; and that the western coasts have deep bends or concavities. Humboldt pointed out the salient angles of the Alantic coast of North and South America, and the re-entering angles of the opposite (west) coast of Europe and Africa. Stiffens extended the symmetrical contour of continents to islands and peninsulas, showing that Greenland,' California and Florida, in America; Scandinavia, Spain and Italy, in Europe; the two Indias, Corea and Kamtchatka, in Asia, resemble the continents in contour, each being triangular, with a sharp angle to the southward. Ritter first showed that the globe can be divided into two hemispheres, the one being the land or continental hemisphere, and the other, the water or oceanic hemisphere. For these principal and some other such facts of symmetry the reader is referred to the "Cosmos" of Humboldt, and to M. Gruyot's "Earth and Man."

So much uniformity has been brought to light, and so many analogous earth-divisions are apparent, that, in the language of Sir Charles Lyell, "no invention of a cataclysm or series of paroxysmal waves can avail us."* The known analogies thus set forth are, however, far— very far from completing the

*In fact, it is geology which, by its discoveries of earth-structure, first indicated the existence of an equable, widely-extended and uniform action of the upheaving force of the continents, the result of which must necessarily be the symmetrical contour of the earth's surfa -e-divisions.

harmonious relations of the masses of land and areas of water, the symmetry of their breadths and lengths, the one direction of the trend of the coasts, and the one bearing of distant capes, headlands, bays and other angles of contour. The position now taken, and which it is the object of this essay to support, is, that every mass of land and every area of water, in relative position, in dimension, and in figure, or contour, is placed and constituted under a law which gives also the figure of the earth as a sphere: or, in other words, that, as the structure of the earth, as a whole, is normal, so its parts, as surface-divisions, have normal limits and determinate forms, and are symmetrical parts of a symmetrical whole.

Description of the Map.

On a map on Mercator's projection the degrees of longitude are made equal, while in nature, or on a terrestrial globe, these degrees lessen north and south from 69.27 miles, for a degree on the equator, to nil at the two poles. This equality in the degrees of longitude does not distort the bearing of places from each other, inasmuch as the error is eliminated by the Mercator-map's having its degrees of latitude increased from the equator to the poles, when on the sphere or globe these degrees of latitude are equal.

Certain east and west lines are drawn on the accompanying map, marking the distances of earth-surface points from each other. These distances will be called cognate distances, being equal arcs of axial rotation in equal times: for the law which determines east and west distances, or breadths, reduces cognate (or equivalent) distances as the degrees of longitude are reduced on the sphere from the equator to the poles. On a Mercator-map, the degrees of longitude not being reduced, cognate distances show themselves by their equality of length or arc.

THE EARTH.

Section Second

The Major [North and South) and the Minor (East and West) Axes of the Continent, and the Bearing, or Trend, of their Coasts.

Attention is first to be directed to the north and south dividing lines, or meridians. These are 90° longitude apart; and thus they divide the world into four equal longitudinal sections.

The first meridian line is the major (north and south) axis of the continent of America, in 70° west longitude; the second, 90° cast of the former, that of Europe and Africa; the third, 90° east of the last named, is that of Asia; and the fourth, still 90° further east, is that of the Pacific ocean ; and it is, hypothetically, the major axis of a continent once existing, but which has subsided beneath the ocean.

These north and south axes extend 138°; that is, from 542 ° south to 83i° north latitude ;* and it will be perceived that Europe and Africa are considered as forming one continent, or one natural division of land,f apart from the continent of Asia.

The land of the continent of America actually terminates at Cape Horn, in 54i° south latitude, while Europe-Africa, and also Asia, have, hypothetically, their terminations of relief in the same parallel, to wit, 54* °.

The correctness of this symmetry, or equality, of the southern terminations will be made apparent. But it may be well to state, in this connection, that the termination of the dry land of continents may be only the termination of the visible relief of the continent. There may be, and often is, a continuation of a relative greater height of the basin of the sea concealed under the water.

*The greatest stretch of land, north and south, is that of America. The land from Cape Horn, say in 54° 30' south latitude, rises to 83° 30' north latitude. The distance is 138°=9G00 miles (G9.27 miles to one degree). A mile, as used in this essay, is y-^jy of the earth's equatorial diameter. Beyond 83° 30' there is the open Polar ocean.

f Steffins combines Europe with Africa. M. Guyot says, the features of relief sever Asia into two parts, adding that eastern Asia forms a continent by itself. It will be after clearly shown that Europe and Africa should be taken as one mass of land, as North and South America constitute one continent.

As a general law, where the terminations of dry land are mountainous the oceans are deep near the coast; shallow seas, however, are found south of the lofty terminations of Africa and Asia. The seas which bathe southern China scarce any where reach the depth of three hundred feet, — the depth of ocean beginning east of the Indian Archipelago. The massive point of the south of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) ends with very abrupt coasts, and yet one hundred miles further south there is only six hundred feet of water.*

The discussion of these major (north and south) axes of length will now be suspended, in order to present the minor (east and west) axes, or axes of the breadth of the continents. v

Under the north tropic the major axis of Europe- Africa divides Africa- Arabia into equal breadths. f There is a distance of 42° arc on each side of this north and south axis, or of 84° arc from ocean to ocean. Also, from the major axis of America, on the north tropic, westward to the Pacific ocean, is 42° arc; and from the major axis of Asia (also under the north tropic) westward over land, from ocean to ocean, is 42° arc. This 42° arc is the semi-minor axis of breadth (east and west), 84° arc being the minor axis of breadth.

Rhumb lines are arcs of great circles of the earth angularly intersecting the meridian lines. All these diagonal lines, drawn on the map, are at the same angle, to wit, thirty degrees.

Let one of these diagonal lines be examined — the one which is drawn from the actual southern termination of South America, rising north-eastward: it will be seen that this line, with very great, if not perfect exactness, marks the mean trend of the south-east coast of South America, and also the trend of the north-west coasts of Africa and Europe.J

There have now been presented three values or measures : the first, 138° arc, as the major axis of length (69° semi-axis of length); the second, 84°, as the minor axis, axis of breadth (42° semi-axis); and the third, the angle 30°, as giving the trend of the coasts.

These values may be regarded as found empirically, that is, as derived from actual measurements.

* Guyot's Earth and Man.

■j- Geologically, and in physical geography, Africa and Arabia form one mass of land. Arabia is said by eminent geologists to have been disrupted from Africa in the Jurassic Era. In place of disruption the relief of the continent may continue across the Red Sea.

\ The mean trend of a coast is the line beyond which there is the same area of land as there is area of water within the line.

THE EARTH. V

But the value of the trend-line, the angle of thirty degrees and the value of the semi-axis of forty-two degrees of arc, are to be obtained trigonomctrically from the value of the obliquity of the ecliptic (23° 28') , and the rationale of this will be after given.

The triangle ABC (at the south-west corner of the map) has a right angle at A; the side AB is made equal to 23° 28' arc; the hypotenuse to (twice 23° 28') 46° 56' arc, which is the distance between the tropics ; then the side AC is found equal to 42° arc, and the angle at C equal to 30°.*

It is thus shown to be a fact, that the semi-minor axes of continents, with the angle of the trend of coasts, is calculable from the value of the obliquity of the ecliptic.

The minor axis being (42° X 2 =) 84°, then 360° — 84° = 276°, one half of which, 138°, is the length of the major axis, and these (84° and 138°) are governing values of the dimensions of areas of land and water.

Before applying these measures, one for pervading symmetry should be set forth. The measure of breadths of land is also in many cases the measure of the breadths of ocean. The land is above the level of the ocean because of its upheaval, and there is ocean because of relative subsidence of land ; and the upheaval and subsidence are determined by one law : therefore it follows that on the earth, as a whole, its elevations and depressions being harmoniously connected, and the level of the waters is so nicely determined that the oceans cover breadths equal to breadths which arc left bare of water. Connect this with another fact. Trace on or near the magnetic equator a great circle of the earth 19° 47' oblique to the geographical equator, the circle commencing on the west coast of South America, under the south tropic, and passing to the north tropic at the extreme east cape of Arabia, then through the south coast of Asia, and so on : the level of the ocean water is so determined that 180° of this circle is land, (broken only by a narrow and shallow part of the Atlantic), and 180° is ocean, unbroken by land.

Many islands are off concavities of the coasts of continents, and many peninsulas are at the north united to their continents.

On the south tropic, the island of Madagascar lies off a bay on the cast coast of Africa. Consider this island as disrupted and impelled from Africa.

*The angle (30°) will be produced if the hypothenuse is double of one side, of any value ; but the other side will be 42° arc only by values as given from the obliquity of the ecliptic. That is, the angle 30° and two sides give one side as 42°.

It is so far removed to the east that the west coast of the continent and east coast of the island are 42° arc apart under the tropic.

The peninsulas of California (North America) and of Arabia, under the north tropic, are northward united to the main land. Now, the points of these peninsulas under tropics are moved, the one eastward, the other westward, just so far that they are 42° from the major axes of their continents.

From the peninsula of California look north (see map) on the west American coast, and a smaller peninsula will be found (say in latitude 52°) resembling that of California in contour ; from this northern peninsula westward, across the Pacific, to the peninsula of Kamtchatka, in Asia, is (twice 42° =) 84° arc. Both these peninsulas are joined to their continents northward; and it is the inclination of their southern points, the one to the east and the other to the luest, that makes them 84° arc asunder. The arc 138° is the major axis of continents. This is the measure from the west coast of Africa, under the north tropic, westward, through Africa, Arabia and Asia, to an island, near and off the east coast of Asia. This island (isle Heinan, almost a peninsula,) with its distance from Asia, is included in the measurement. There are other instances of this symmetry. In the place of disruption the relief between peninsula and continent is often continued under water; but the subsidence of land under the water-level is regarded as paroxysmal. Thus by what is called paroxysmal action the symmetry of the world is actually preserved.

These facts are important as proving that "the upheaving force" of geology is not paroxysmal in its action, and that it acts on the earth normally as a whole. Even where cataclysms have been supposed to have thrown masses of land asunder, the limit of separation is law-determined.

There is another fact which indicates the relation of surface-contour. The measures, 138° and 84° arc, are specially applicable to earth divisions under the tropics. The tropics are astronomical divisions of the earth.

Let it be supposed that the angle of the trend of the coasts, to wit, 30°, is derived from measurement, if thereby the magnitude of the earth can be calculated, a symmetrical relation between the earth as a whole and its surface divisions will be established. A line (radius) from the earth's centre to the equator is, of course, at 30° angle with a line (radius) to the 30° parallel of latitude. Make 42° arc the diameter of a circle, on latitude 30°. The value of one degree of longitude on the 30 9 parallel is 60. miles; 42° X 60 = 2520; 2,520 X 3.1416 = 7,920 miles, which is the value of the earth's diameter. That is,. 42° arc of longitude at latitude 30° equals the diameter of a circle the circumference of which equals the diameter of the earth. This relation, at this time, is given as a fact, or accidental coincidence, if the term is preferred, the qualifying term, accidental, meaning only that it falls out so, happens to be so, is so. The perfect universe is full of these "accidents" of symmetry.

Section Third

Discussion of the Major and Minor Axes of the Continents.

First, the arc 42° under the tropics will be discussed. It has been indicated that 42° arc, running east and west from the major axis of Europe-Africa, reaches to the ocean on both sides ; that this arc west both of the American and Asiatic axes reaches to ocean ; 42° arc is the breadth of South America on the tropic, with relief under the ocean ; 42° arc forms the breadth from the west coast of South America to the east coast of Madagascar, and it is also the breadth of Australia, under the tropic. The arc (twice 42° =) 84° measuring the breadth of Africa- Arabia, under the north tropic, measures with equal exactness the following ocean-breadths : the Atlantic, under the north tropic ; from the west coast of Africa to the east coast of Mexico, across the Atlantic ; from the east coast of Africa, westward, across the Atlantic, under south tropic, to the eastern shore of the Pacific ; and from the east coast of Africa, under this tropic, eastward, to the west coast of Australia. These are all measures under the tropics.

The cognate ocean breadths of 84° arc will now be set forth. The north Atlantic, from Iceland to Nova Zembla; from Hudson's Bay (say north latitude 55°) to Denmark; the south Atlantic, from the west coast of North America, eastward, to Africa; from the south-east point of Cape Horn to the north and south axes of Europe-Africa; the Pacific ocean, from the west coast of South America, westward, near the south tropic, through unbroken ocean, to an archipelago, forming the boundary of the subsided area; the Pacific, in say north latitude 52°, from the west coast of North America, westward, to the east coast of Kamtchatka (Asia), and so on. 3

The arc 138° (major axis): From the west coast of Africa, east, to the east coast of Australia, is 138°, under the south tropic ; thence to the west coast of South America is 138°; and thence there is 84° arc (138 + 138 -j- 84 = 360°) to the starting point, being the west coast of Africa.

Cognate breadths of land of 138° arc: Europe- Asia, say in north latitude 60°; the breadth, from the waters of the Baltic, eastward, to the Pacific; the breadth, from the west of Africa, under the north tropic, west, to an archipelago in the Pacific ; and the breadth of North America, from Behrin's Straits to the east shore of Greenland. This line (138° -*- 2 =) 69° arc, and gives the latitude of the northern coast of Europe and Asia.

Other repetitions of these measures can be traced out; and if the relief of the solid crust of the earth, under water, were visible, many other cognate breadths would be brought to view.

The four major (north and south) continental axes are now the subject of discussion. These axes are not empirically located, and yet could be so located from the features of the contour of the land over which they pass.

The American axis commmences south, at the extreme southern cape of this continent (Cape Horn). It touches the west coast of South America, under the south tropic. It passes north, out of South America, at its extreme north cape. It re-enters land of North America at a cape, or headland. It then traverses a part of the United States, and across British America, It touches an extreme north cape, at the entrance into Baffin's Bay and Hudson's Straits, and indicates the mean north and south trend of a coast beyond the Arctic Highlands.

The major axis of Europe-Africa passes from 54s south latitude into the extreme south cape of Africa. It divides Africa- Arabia, under the north tropic, centrally. Entering the Mediterranean, at its extreme south coast, [it passes into the Baltic Sea, also at or near its extreme south coast; it exits from Europe at an extreme northern island of the coast; and it enters Spitsbergen in the same latitude under which the axis of America enters the "Arctic Highlands."

The major axis of Asia rises from its southern terminus, in south latitude 54i°, touches the extreme west cape of Australia, enters the Indian Archipelago at its extreme southern island, traverses two of its principal islands, and, entering Asia proper, terminates north, at a cape stretching into the Arctic Ocean.

The major (north and south) axis of the Pacific Ocean is the fourth and last. This, commencing north, near Behrin's Straits, descends south, centrally, through the great ocean, and also, centrally, between the east and west spreading archipelagos of the Pacific.

According to Professor Dana, the subsided area of the Pacific Ocean has its maximum subsidence between the meridians 150° and 180° west (mean 165°). The major axis of the Pacific is in 160° west.

The major axis of the Pacific ocean passes over less land (and near to more islands) than any other meridian, or north and south line which can be drawn through this ocean. It is, as before said, hypothetically the major axis of a continent existing in a former geological era (the tertiary?) , and which has subsided far beneath the level of the sea.*

These four major axes have striking and analogous characteristics. They are all 90° apart, and those of America, Europe -Africa and Asia pass from south into the extreme southern capes of their continent. The major axis of America touches the west coast of South America, under the tropic, having say 42° arc semi-axis of breadth,f to the east. At the north tropic, from this axis westward, to the shore of the Pacific, is 42° arc; from this axis eastward, in latitude 69°, to the east coast of Greenland, is 42° arc distant.

The major axis of Europe- Africa, under the north tropic, divides Africa - Arabia into two equal parts, of 42° arc. As before said, the major axis of Asia has, from water to water, 42° arc of land, on the tropic, to the westward. So of the north and south axis of America.

All these measurements may not be fractionaly exact, as the elevations of land, or relief, may be extended under the water. Some are exact, and the others very approximately the true measure.

The American axis passes over two inland seas, to wit: the Gulf of Mexico and the connected Hudson's and Baffin's Bays. The axis of Europe- Africa also passes through two seas, to wit: the Mediterranean and Baltic. All these three north and south axes pass over more land than any other meridian lines, while the fourth, that of the Pacific, passes over less hind than any other meridian line, indicating the maximum of subsidence.

The major axes of America, Europe- Africa and Asia not only pass over the greatest north and south stretches of continents, but also over equal, or

*Each coral island, or atol, is "literally, as well as poetically, a coral urn over a buried rocky island," (mountain of a continent). The subsidence is thus a vast area of say 2,000 miles wide by 6,000 miles long.

f Taking into view a submarine relief, known to exist : the measure is not accurate, as applied to the visible relief.

nearly equal, lengths of land (excluding water). An examination of the map will show that the difference of the north and south visible lengths of the relief of the three continents is from the interposition of inland seas. There is not one large inland sea in Asia ; therefore this continent is the shortest, north and south; and the difference between the north and south lengths of America and Europe-Africa is from the greater length (north and south) of the Gulf of Mexico and the Hudson-Baffins Bay, compared with the north and south lengths of the Mediterranean and Baltic seas, of Europe.

The three major -axes of America, of Europe- Africa and of Asia pass centrally through their continents, north and south ; and the fourth, that of the Pacific, centrally through this ocean.

One other significant fact will be given, as incidental, or without comment: the earth has two magnetic axes and four poles, or points of no variation. Two of the poles (mean) are coincident with continental major axes.

It is taught (Gruyot's Earth and Man) that there is a fundamental difference in the structure of the new continent and that of the old world; the major axis of the former, it is said, runs north and south, and the major axis of the latter (across Europe-Asia) runs east and west,