A treatise on steel : comprising its theory, metallurgy, properties, practical working, and use

Front matter

* * a o v

- V c

) o

Introduction

HISTORY OF STEEL.

Discovery of Steel

First Furnaces of the Hebrews

The Chinese

The Greeks, Homer

Scarcity of Steel

Bronze

JEthalia

The Chalybes

Furnaces

Fuel in Use

Knowledge of Pit Coal

Knowledge of Pig Iron

Iron and Steel in Egypt and

Arabia

First Iron Bedstead

Corporation of Blacksmiths ...

Ores Known at that Time

Progress of Iron and Steel ....

Invention of the Hammer and

Anvil

Invention of the bellows

Manufactures in Palestine

Greek colonies

Discovery of metals

Iron coins

The Phoenicians

Metallurgy in iEthalia 25

First alloy of iron and bronze 26

Roman metallurgists 27

The Moors of Spain 28

Ancient Bilbilis 29

Germany 30

Ores employed then 31

Use of fluxes 32

Blowing machines 33

Pig iron unknown to Agricola 34 Determination of the time of

its use 35

First blast furnace 36

Blast furnaces in France 37

Fluss ofen in India 38

Cast iron employed in England 39 Eastern countries the birthplace of steel 40

First cementation of iron...... 41

Sheffield cutlery 42

Introduction of cast steel in

England 43

Puddled steel invented in Ca-

rinthia 44

Progress of steel works in

France 45

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

I. Heat.

Expansion 46

Fusion 47

Colorations by heat 48

Unit of heat 49

II. Oxygen.

Its affinity for iron 50

Metallic sponge (Chenot's) 51

Protoxide of iron (Ferrous oxide) 52

Contents

Peroxide of iron (ferric oxide)

Affinity for carbon

Reactions of carbon and oxygen

Part First. Steel And Its Theory

Iron 143

Theory of alloys 145

Carbides of iron 146

Analyses of steel 147

Electricity 148

Solution 149

Saturation 150

Definite proportions 151

Reactions in the blast furnace 152

Formation of pig metal 153

Unity in steel 154

Carbon andiron 155

Manganese 156

Carbides of manganese 157

Action of manganese 158

Mushet's steel 159

Silicon 160

Alloy made by Berzelius 161

Composition of steel 162

Clouet's steel 163

Magnesium 164

Aluminium 165

Various alloys 366

Chemical alloys 167

Experiment 168

Beginning of cementation 169

Steely iron 170

Cemented iron 171

Blistered steel 172

Is this a true steel ? 173

Remedies 175

Steel made in blast furnaces... 177

Inferences 178

Manufactures of steel in the

Alps 179

Production of steel in the

Pyrene.es 180

Unity in the theory 181

Proportion of carbon 182

Theory of Reaumur.

Extracts from Reaumur's

work 183

Case hardening 184

Conversion of iron into steel.. 185

Cementing substances 186

Nature of these substances ... 187

Mode of operation 188

Trials with mixtures 189

Explaining how the experiments succeeded 190

Trial with lime 191

Trial with plaster of Paris 192

Sand 193

Change of texture 194

Trial with clay 195

Trial with leached ashes 196

Trial with glass 197

The metal cleansed 198

Necessity of cementing substances 199

Uselessness of secrets 200

Trial with fatty matters 201

Trial with certain salts 202

Trial with soap 203

Trial with charcoal 204

Conclusions 205

Researches 206

Alkalies 207

Borax 208

Steel not remaining such 209

Common salt 210

Spirits of salts 211

Mineral substances 212

Salts and charcoal 213

Best composition (at Reaumur's epoch) 214

Charcoals 215

Xll

CONTENTS.

Composition of steel 216

Combined and uncombined

Other metals alloyed 218

Pulverizing 219

Separation into three portions 220

1. Estimation of carbon 221

Search for nitrogen 222

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 2

Estimation of sulphur and

phosphorus 223

3. Estimation of graphitic carbon, silica, lime, etc 224

Search for chrome and alumina 225 Search and estimation of manganese , 226

Precipitation of the lime 227

Search for magnesium 228

Part Second. Metallurgy Of Steel

Substances for making steel... 229 I Pig metal employed 255

Classification of the processes 230 Working 256

Division of this section 231 Products, consumption, labor 257

I. Natural Steel.

Furnaces

Catalan Forge

Dimensions

Production of steel or iron....

Position of the tuyere

Projection of the tuyere

Slope of the tuyere

Ores employed

Charging the furnace

Working

Drawing the blooms

Length and waste of the operation

II. Raw Steel.

Pig metal employed

Furnaces

Dimensions

Staff of workmen

Mode of operation

Products and consumption

Another method

Westphalian and Silesian processes

Products and consumption

Styrian process

III. Puddled Steel.

Furnace

252 253

IV. Steel of Cementation.

Cementation at the ordinary

tern perature 259

Ignorance on this subject 260

Cementation in general 261

Dimensions 263

Charge 264

Operation 265

Observations on furnaces 266

V. Cast Steel.

Object of casting 267

Crucibles or pots 268

Construction of pots 269

Choice of the materials 270

Mixed clays 271

Drying 273

Various shapes of pots 275

Stands and lids 276

Labor 277

Graphite 278

Its composition 279

Casting furnaces 280

Dimensions 281

Sheffield furnaces 282

Charging 283

CONTENTS.

Xlll

Fuel 284

Operation 285

Making the ingots 286

Running into large moulds.... 287

Use of manganese 288

Remarks on steel 289

VI. Wootz.

Ore employed 291

Analogy with natural steel.... 293

Fusion 294

Waste 295

Analogy with cast steel 296

Various processes 297

Shape of the commercial product 298

VII. New Processes.

Summing up of the various

processes 299

Tendency of the metallurgy of

All processes derived from one

principle 301

Process of Mr. E. Newton .... 302 Process of Messrs. Crace Calvert, Fontaine 303

Process of David Mushet and

S. Rodgers 304

Process of Messrs. Martien and

Brooman 305

Process of Mr. Robert Mushet 306 Process of Messrs. Price and

Nicholson 307

Process of Mr. Manory 308

Process of Mr. Sterling 309

First idea of the Bessemer process due to Mr. Martien 310

Chenot Process.

Principle 311

A rational idea 312

Mr» Chenot is struck by it .... 313 Disposition of the apparatus... 314 Enormous compression 315

Cementation..*. 316

New metallurgy of steel 317

Bessemer Process.

Theory 318

First idea due to Mr. Martien 319

Principle of the operation 320

Apparatus 321

Fitting the converter 322

Mode of operation 323

Taylor Process.

Analogy with the Bessemer

process., 324

Apparatus 325

Production regulated at will.. 326 Continuous production 327

Uchatius Process.

Pig iron employed 329

Granulating the metal 330

Theory 331

Mode of operation 332

Proportions 333

Experiments 334

Products and consumption .... 335

VIII. Damascus Steel.

Damascus blades 336

Price and description of scime-

tars 337

Imitations in Europe 338

How to make the pattern appear 339

Theory of Mr. Henri, of Bou-

gival 340

Influence of aluminium 341

IX. Metallic Tissues.

Metallic alloys 343

Silver steel 344

Mechanical alloy 345

Rhodium steel 348

Platinum steel 346

Metallic mirrors 347

Chromium steel 349

XIV

CONTENTS.

Part Third. Working Of Steel

Division of this section.

I. Refining by Drawing or

Tilting.

The object of this operation... 351

Working 352

Influence of a good workman 354

II. Welding.

Temperature 355

Equilibriation of heat 356

Respective masses of iron and

Use of borax 358

III. Annealing.

Annealing is not tempering.... 359

Difference 360

Degree of temperature 361

Cooling in water 362

Cooling in charcoal dust 363

IV. Hardening.

Effects from heat 364

Slow cooling 365

Rapid cooling 366

Explanation of the hardening 367

Loss of specific gravity 369

Hardening in tepid water 370

Theorem on hardening 371

Limits 372

Cherry-red heat 373

Pare water 374

Degrees of hardening 375

Temperatures for hardening... 376

Overheating 377

Employment of fusible alloys.. 378

Composition of these alloys... 379

V. Tempering.

Harshness of steel 380

Structure of iron and steel 381

Change by heat 382

Tilted steel 383

Effect produced 385

Changes of color in tempering 386

They act as guides 387

Mode of operation and precepts 388

VI. Hammer Hardening.

Hammering iron 389

Hammer hardening steel 390

Should not be done too rapidly 391

Warped or distorted pieces 392

Causes of this phenomenon ... 393