The physical nature of the child, and how to study it

Front matter

Class Book l."P

Copyright U?._

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT

Preface

In so far as the teaching of to-day is superior to that of a generation ago, it owes that precedence largely to a more general observance of two fundamental principles. One of these is that action is the first law of growth; the other, that individuals vary enormously in their capabilities for different kinds of mental and physical action.

It is these two principles and the many implied by them that have called forth this book. In so far as action is to be secured from each child, the physical conditions and basis of that action should be known, not only for the average, but, according to our second principle, for each of the children. That conditions exist highly prejudicial to the child's physical development and, consequently, to his growth and power to act, vi PREFACE

is evident from a glance at the ordinary schoolroom. That the causes of these obstructive circumstances are not to be stumbled upon without effort or care is equally evident. There are thousands of earnest teachers as well as parents who cannot witness the slow progress of a few children, the worn, tired faces of some, and the listless apathy of others in quiet. For such it is hoped the suggestions contained in this book may serve as a fairly complete and helpful guide to a study of the child's physical basis for action.

It is not expected that a teacher will make all the tests here suggested on every child in his room. No teacher will have time for that. But the tests may be made in a comparatively short time, and be of great helpfulness in solving some of the individual problems which present themselves to every teacher. In some cases the method of experiment admits of an application to all of the children in the room as easily as to one, and light is certain to be thrown on the power of individuals whose ability had been

PREFACE vil

previously over- or under-estimated. This light may be of avail to the teacher in leading him to a better adaptation of his work to the child, or it may lead to the removal of the cause of the abnormality, — in either case to the great advantage of both teacher and pupil. While tests of this sort increase the teacher's burden at the moment, they certainly relieve the nervous strain and worry coming upon him from the backward or troublesome pupil. If the child has become normal now that the hindrances have been removed, or* if the teacher is now in a position to adapt himself to known peculiarities, — in either case .the solution of the problem is complete. Work may still be involved, but not to the degree and not with the worry which otherwise would be unavoidable. Far be it from the intent of the author to hint that all the difficulties to be encountered by the teacher or parent are in the realm of the physical. The physical side of the child's nature is taken because it is get-at-able and is the source of a far larger amount of psychical deformity than is viii PREFACE

usually admitted. Any child under question should be assumed to be weak or degenerating physically, until the investigation has falsified the assumption.

For parents whose time admits of a study of their children from the physical side, this book is intended to furnish the important data for such an investigation. It would seem that they would be among the first to interest themselves in such studies, though experience would hardly justify that opinion.

The term "practical" is always relative. Great care has been taken to include no tests which are not thoroughly practical, that is, well worth while.

The subjects treated with the tests suggested represent in part a course in child-study given by the author in the State Normal School at Mankato, Minnesota. This book was originally an attempt to supply a text-book which would make it possible to devote more of the time of that course to experimentation. Since then a change in position has led the author to see

PREFACE IX

more clearly the advantage of some such guide for teachers in a city system. A slight acquaintance with rural schools would lead one to the opinion that here first of all the suggestions of this book are needed.

An attempt has been made to exclude everything not directly helpful or suggestive in making the studies, compactness and freedom from inflation being regarded essential to the usefulness of the book. Where various methods of testing have been suggested, the practical and non-scientific is in each case recommended, though the possibilities of the situation will largely influence the choice of tests both as to number and kind.

The order of the chapters has been determined partly by their immediate importance to teachers and the relative degree of interest shown by students in the subjects treated. The last two chapters, however, have somewhat of the nature of a summary approaching the subject from the standpoint of hygiene particularly.

X PREFACE

I wish here to acknowledge my indebtedness to

Dr. J. H. James of Mankato, Minnesota, and a

number of others for valuable suggestions and

help, while to the criticism and cooperation of

my wife the book owes a large share of whatever

usefulness it may possess.

S. H. R.

New Haven, Conn., March, 1899.

Preface To Revised Edition

When the first edition of this book was printed, it was hoped by the author that its usefulness might not be limited to the students in normal or training schools, for whom it was more especially intended. Its reception has proved wider than was expected; for, not only has the book served as an introductory text-book in connection with courses in child-study and observation in progressive normal and training schools, but it has been used similarly or for reference purposes in practically every university interested in the training of teachers and has guided many parents as well as teachers in their study of peculiar children. The book has also been endorsed by the most able and eminent school superintendents of the country. For example, Superintendent Maxwell only a short time ago stated publicly that he wished it might be read by every teacher in New York City.

x ii PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION

In the present edition only minor changes have been made, although the serviceability of the bibliography has been increased by lines of comment as to the value of the books or articles specified. The author has considered the possibility of adding materially to the book, but upon reflection has decided that it contains already as much and more than the busy practical teacher can expect to make use of ordinarily. Amplification might tend to finessing at the expense of the fundamental.

Chapter I Page

Introduction i

Chapter II

Percentage of defective eyes. — Causes. — Amount and position of light. — Print adapted to the eyes. — Straining for a nearer view. — Directions for quick, practical test. — Test of astigmatism. — Care in making tests. — A more accurate test. — Use of Queen's test card. — Test for color-blindness. — Reflection from blackboard.

Chapter III

Need of tests. — Difficulty of detecting cases without actual tests. — Possibility of cure. — Causes. — Symptoms.

— The three methods of testing the ear. — Scientific test with the watch. — Whisper test. — Tuning-fork test. — The record. — A less scientific but more practical test.

— Significance of tests. —Tests of tone, timbre, and harmony.

Chapter IV

1. Touch 3 6

Increased power of discrimination possible. — The tests.

2. Taste 37

Use of test. — Method of testing.

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

3. Smell 3 8

Development possible. — Tests for smell.

4. Muscular Sense 4°

5. Temperature Sense 40

Chapter V

Importance of self-activity. — Importance for ideas. — Importance of overcoming defects. — Causes. — Practicality of tests. — Directions for test made through play. — Tests for quickness of reaction. — Games with lessons for teachers. — Significance of tests for physical culture.

Chapter VI

Conditioned by certain forms of motor activity and habit. — Children of foreign parentage. — Deformity or disease of organs or centers of speech. — Directions for tests. — Principles involved in the improvement of enunciation. — Getting an apperceptive basis for a sound. — Time and care necessary. — Stammering and stuttering.

— Suggestions for overcoming these habits.

CHAPTER VII Nervousness 62 Causes. — When nervousness should alarm the teacher

— Need of tests. — Directions for tests. — For chorea. — Effectiveness of tests. — Nervousness and the individual pupil. — Unusual restlessness.

Chapter VIII

Nature and cause. — Results of fatigue. — Importance of tests. — Directions for practical tests. — Symptoms. —

TABLE OF CONTENTS XV

Scientific tests. — Results of scientific investigation of fatigue in children.

Chapter IX

The gauntlet run by the child. — Information to be collected by the careful teacher. — Guarding against contagion. — Conditions aggravating disease. — Cigarettes and their record. — Treatment of thin and pale children.

— Inadequate or irregular food.

Chapter X

Importance of the subject (a) for health, {F) as a key to the child's mental life. — Points to be especially observed : Sitting while (a) writing, (J?) reading and studying, (V) in conversation. — Standing and mental attitudes.

— Exceptions. — Tests of standing position. — Sleep.

Chapter XI

Kinds of movement. — The significance of involuntary movement. — Tests of involuntary movements. — Significance of expressive movements. ■ — Kinds of tests desirable.

— Walking. — What to observe. — Further observations.

— Outward form and inner content.

CHAPTER XII Interest in growth. — Comparative regularity of growth

— Physical development and brightness. — Children below normal. — Causes of defective physical growth. — Possibility of removing causes. — The test of growth. — Tables xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS of average growth. — The growing season. — Influence of sex on growth. — Results of a foolish modesty. — Sex hygiene. — One source of danger. — Test questions from the standpoint of sex. — Special cases. — Books on sex. — Growth during adolescence. — Sensitiveness. — Intensity of adolescent life. — Effect upon the interests of the child. — Needs of the girl. — Needs of the boy. — Test questions.

CHAPTER XIII School Conditions affecting the Child's Physical

Nature 146

A summary. — Site. — Water. — Heating and ventilation. — Floors. — Furniture. — Light and the sight. — Hearing. — Disease and the schoolroom. — Schoolroom method. — The school programme. — The school curriculum.

CHAPTER XIV Home Conditions affecting the Child's Physical

Nature 175

Hygiene from the teacher's standpoint. — Important questions. — 1. Food. 2. Clothing and care of skin. 3. Air. 4. Exercise. 5. Sleep. 6. Miscellaneous. — Importance and use of questions. — Exceptional cases. — Remarks.

Index 197

THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF THE CHILD AND HOW TO STUDY IT

Introduction

The child is a wonderful being. From his first short cry on entering the world to the end of his period of development, he opens up for us problem after problem and enigma after enigma. How does the child regard the things which he finds about him? How many of them does he take with him into the world of his imagination? What mental processes are most characteristic and most to be relied upon in directing his growth ? These questions and a host of others, not only in the direction of his mental life, but in every phase of child-life, are pressing for an answer.

Among the most interesting developments which have resulted from the recent child-study movement is the discovery of a widespread disregard by parent, teacher, and school board of the child's physical nature. With opportunities on every side, we have not made much progress in finding out the less evident physical deficiencies of children, and have even neglected the study of the most important means of testing their physical condition. Let him who doubts this answer these questions. Are you sure every child in your class can see every portion of the blackboard distinctly? Are you sure every child holds his book at a distance which produces no strain on the eye? Are you sure that each of your children can hear everything said? Are there any partially deaf children in your class? Is the inaction or slowness of some of them due to lack of motor ability or disease? Do all take in sitting and standing the best posture possible? Do you treat all children exactly alike in the degree of precision required? Have you tried to find out the cause of pallor in this face? Has each child been taught at home the principles of hygiene most

INTRODUCTION 3

essential for health? Do you make any allowance for different dispositions? Do you know the amount of work, mental or manual, done by each child outside of school? How much exercise does each take? Have you tried to secure the best enunciation even from those who have some slight defects in the vocal organs?

To these may be added a list of questions calling attention to the conditions which ought to exist. How far should the average child see ordinary writing on the blackboard? How near and how far from the eye should the book be held? How large must type be in order to be used by the child with perfect safety? How many square feet of floor will one square foot of window light up under average conditions? Does your schoolroom meet that requirement? How fast should children grow in each year of life? How much school work should the average child be able to accomplish at different ages without indications of fatigue? What are the most evident signs of fatigue? What form of chair and desk is most desirable? These and a hundred others are worthy of careful consideration on our parts. Some of them doubtless can be answered by the reader, and yet in some of these cases it may be that we are not as sure as we think. Only this week one teacher of experience and reputation had just made the assertion that there were no deaf children under her instruction, and fifteen minutes later it was discovered that one of them was quite deaf. Hundreds of similar cases are on record. Hence the question — Are you sure ?

The design of this book is not to give the latest results in each department of child-study touching its physical side, but to give teachers practical hints which may call attention to some physical peculiarities of children, not commonly investigated in their bearing on the work of the schools, and, it is hoped, lead to some further application of common-sense methods to our schoolroom work. The results of scientific investigations will be included, wherever they are likely to be practically suggestive or helpful.

In view of the importance — the great prac-

INTRODUCTION 5

tical importance — of this physical side of child-study work, a brief comparison of our educational practice with our theory will not be amiss. We have too long regarded the child's mental power as something apart from his physical life. We have comforted ourselves with the thought of Milton and Homer when we found that our children did not see well, of Caesar when they did not hear well, of Gray and Shelley when they were pale and sickly. Like the man who sent a huge rock crashing over the brink of a precipice, we have " hoped for the best." Science says that these men do hot represent the average ; that it is criminal to go on neglecting the study of conditions; that the conditioning power of the physical over the mental is all-important and demands recognition.

At this time we are to consider physical conditions only. These may be classified under two heads : first, those offered by the child as he comes to school; and secondly, these same conditions as modified or intensified by the school environment.

The normal child brings to school with him a well-developed nervous system through which he is gathering sense knowledge and asserting himself. He has a combination of habits constituting both his motor equipment for self-expression and his disposition or temperament. He has strength and health. But all this applies to the normal child. An examination of our classes is enough to convince us that we have very few normal children. In a mother's eyes the normal children are all in some family more or less remote, and the mother is almost always right. Among children there are not only varying degrees of health and strength, but even the sharpness of the senses varies. Sometimes a variation in the acuteness of the senses is found in the same child. Some children are actually deficient in one ear or in one eye without being aware of it, while quite a percentage have a defect in both, which may be a serious drawback to them in their school life. Disease has rendered others abnormal in their sensitiveness or nervousness. Adolescence brings with

INTRODUCTION J

it frequently a restlessness and inability to perform mental work, requiring especial tac£ and understanding on the part of the teacher. Accordingly, we shall use all means in our power to discover these defects and their causes. This will necessitate an examination or test of the eyes, ears, touch, taste, smell, motor ability, temperament, fatigue, record for health both past and present, blood supply, food most eaten and enjoyed, effects of adolescence on nervous system, growth in height and weight, gait, previous habits of work, posture in standing and sitting, enunciation and voice. We must also consider these, as affected by schoolroom and home conditions, and that will require a few remarks, as to the effect of certain conditions such as dryness or dampness, hot or cold draughts of air, seating, ventilation, and other important features of school hygiene.

Chapter II

Percentage of defective eyes. — One of the most important practical results which have come to light through the present widespread interest in child-study has been the discovery that our schools have been making weak eyes. Careful records have been made in cities of our own country and abroad, and it has been the universal testimony that the percentage of poor eyes increases from grade to grade. This means strain and headaches, unless discovered and attended to promptly. The percentages vary according to the locality and the home environment of the children. The children of the slums frequently have eyesight much impaired. A professor in a school for the blind in New York City told the writer that some of his pupils could see, although they had come there almost totally blind. As a result of good care and hygienic conditions, they were gradually regaining some visual power. This variation both in grades and in locality makes it difficult to construct averages. About twenty per cent of the children in upper grades have some perceptible weakness of the eye which may be discovered by a careful test. This difficulty is usually myopia, or short-sightedness. Probably less than three per cent of the children have this defect upon entering school. In fact, the young child's eye is far-sighted (hypermetropic) and does not become normal before a period ranging from the fifth to the seventh year.

Causes. — The causes of defective eyesight are poor light, fine print, bad positions, i.e. holding the book too near to or too far from the eye, tight neckwear, rubbing the eyes, disease, cigarette smoking, and unhealthy home conditions. The effect of school work is headache and tired nervous condition making it hard for the child to attend successfully to his book or the blackboard, and a consequent unwillingness and inability to make the attempt for any but a very limited period. The manifestations will not be constant, but will show themselves with increasing frequency as the child advances in the grades. They are effects, not causes. The "after-school headache" is another result of overtaxing the eye. It is not sufficiently noticeable at first to serve as an indication of visual defect, but its appearance is serious in its import as to the condition of the eye. Bad conditions should be discovered in time to avoid their consequences. This is particularly true of those who are suffering from congenitally weak eyes. The evidence seems to point to the fact that these especially suffer in their school work. They should be guarded by an examination as they begin their school life, and the amount of work given should be limited to what can be done without injury.

Dr. Risley says that in several cases he has known of sudden relapses of choroidal disease with an increase in refraction after the strain of a written rest or examination and the preparation for the same, even where the regular work of the term had not been harmful. He also claims that too much of our school work is done at a point near the eyes. The blackboard should be used more frequently in the lower grades.

Amount and position of light. — In searching for causes of eye difficulty, it is well first of all to investigate our schoolrooms to see if there is light enough. We are told that there should be one square foot of window for each four or five square feet of floor surface; that this light should be unobstructed by other buildings or trees. It should come over the left shoulder of the child, and should be from one side of the room only. Where the light is insufficient, the blackboards should be covered by light yellow curtains when not in use. The window curtains should be raised from a roller fastened below the window (rather than the reverse, as is usual), in order that the light coming from above may cause less shadow and that the child may, under no circumstances, have to face the bright light. The ideal scheme for regulating the lighting is to provide both methods of adjusting the shades. Parents frequently allow children to read or study at home with the bright flame of a lamp or other light glaring directly into the eye. Few eyes are strong enough to stand such abuse. Again, children are permitted to read in bed, or in positions where no proper light can be obtained. The schoolroom should be lighted by sunlight, but this condition, and possibly one or two of the others named, may be found suggestive rather of needs than of practical help. The practical lesson involved is this : Where we are per force obliged to teach in conditions not ideal, we should be all the more careful to see that every favoring condition possible be given the children, and that frequent tests be made to discover cases of visual defects which may be just developing.

Print adapted to the eye. — Our text-books have not always been guiltless in the print offered to the child's eye. If you turn to the word "Pica" 1 in Webster's dictionary, you

1 This foot-note is printed in Pica.

will find a sample of the type which is as small as should be submitted to the eyes of young children. The letter is about seven one-hundredths of an inch in height. Most persons are somewhat surprised to learn what a large letter one of that size is. The other specimen of type illustrated in the same place in Webster is " Small Pica" 1 and is about six one-hundredths of an inch in height. According to Dr. Cohn the type used in our school-books must not be less than six one-hundredths of an inch in height, and the lines of the small n not less than one one-hundredth of an inch wide. The distance between letters should not be less than three one-hundredths of an inch, and the distance between lines not less than one-tenth of an inch. Test your school-books and see whether they come up to this standard or not. Paper should be non-transparent, non-bibulous, without gloss, and not embossed by type.

Straining for a nearer view. — Some children are so eager and enthusiastic in their reading 1 This foot-note is printed in Small Pica.

that, as soon as a word troubles them, involuntarily they bring the book nearer the eye and strain for a closer view of the word in their effort to understand. This is likely to lead the child to form the bad habit of holding his book too near the eye even when no special effort is necessary. The eyes should be tested in such cases, and in the case of any other abnormal position or movement of the eyes.

Directions for quick, practical test. — This test (which should be made on every child soon after he enters school) is really a very simple matter, if these directions are followed implicitly.

Find out first whether there are any symptoms of eye trouble, as headaches, watering of the eyes, red or swollen lids, suppuration, the strained look characteristic of weak eyes, and reading with the book too close to the eye.

A child with red or inflamed eyes or lids should be required to show a certificate of the non-infectious nature of the disease, before he is admitted to school. There is considerable danger of infection in the use of the same lavatories, towels, or soap, unless this precaution is taken.

At a nominal price both Snellen's Test Types and the "E" chart (for the use of children who do not " know their letters ") may be obtained from the Secretary of the State Board of Education, Hartford, Conn. Hang the chart up in a good light. For a quick test of sight, adapted to young children on account of its simplicity, perhaps the best is this method of using the chart. Have the child take a seat twenty feet from the card and write down or tell you all the letters he sees at that distance with each eye. Both eyes should be open and free from squinting. The eye not in use must be covered by a card or some object held before it. Do not let the child press or touch the eye with the hand. It must be open, but be kept by a card or other obstruction from seeing the chart. If he sees all of the letters or more than is expected at that distance, the eyes are probably in good condition. If he omits some or can only see a very few of those that should be seen at twenty feet, he is defective and should be examined by an oculist, especially if his eyes look strained and he is subject to headache. If children do not know the letters, let them draw the forms they see, or, better, use the " E " chart, having the children indicate the open side of each letter by pointing correspondingly. The Test of Vision for use in schools published by Queen 1 may be used in the same way as the Snellen for this quick test. 2

Test of astigmatism. — On the same card are to be found the lines for testing astigmatism. Have the child, if vision is nearly normal, stand twenty feet from the card. If not normal, he should stand where he can see the type for twenty feet. Ask him whether any of the lines are "blacker" than others. Find out which they are. Are they much "blacker"? Do the rest run together into a single blur? Most persons have some astigmatic trouble, but it is not until

1 See page 19.

2 The Jaeger types are hardly necessary as a further test of children. All opticians keep them. Children should read No. 2 with ease at twelve inches.

some of the lines in the test are seen as a blur or headache is experienced that it is dangerous.

Care in making tests. — Care should be taken that our tests be as accurate as possible and free from vitiating conditions. The blunders made even by bright teachers in these tests are astonishing. Experience has shown five directions to be especially necessary. Hang the card in a good light. Keep it clean, free from leadpencil or finger marks. Test one eye at a time. See that the other eye is properly covered. Keep the card out of sight when not in use.

A more accurate test. — Although the above tests are likely to detect all cases which it is possible for the teacher to discover, it is frequently desired by teachers or parents to take more than ordinary precautions to get an accurate test, particularly where records extending over a considerable period of the child's life are to be kept, or where scientific results are required. Its advantages over the other test are summed up in the facts, first, that the poorer eye, being discovered usually at the first distance, is not helped at the other distances by the impressions left when the better eye was used ; secondly, that more letters are offered for the test; and thirdly, that inaccuracies in the types or in their use are more readily detected. In using Snellen's test card begin not less than sixty feet from the card, test the child's ability to read with each eye the type for that distance, as before, cutting off the vision of the eye not in use with a card or other obstruction held in front of it. Then advance to the next distance indicated on the card and try each eye at that point, and so on. By waiting a moment between the tests for the two eyes the letters will be forgotten, and you will soon find out which eye sees better. If not certain, at the next distance begin with the eye tested second at the other distance. After that always test the poorer eye first. Do not hurry the child, and, if he tires, give him time to rest before you finish. If he can name none of the letters at the required distances, find out what he can see ; but usually the eye which does not distinguish most of the letters at the required distances (if the light is good and the card clean) should be examined by a physician. This is a test of keen-sightedness. If the eye does not see well, it may be troubled with myopia (near-sightedness) or hypermetropia (far-sightedness) or astigmatism. The use of plus or minus lenses has been advocated to determine the nature of the disease, but if the eye has been found defective, further investigation can be left to the oculist.