Examinations in anatomy and physiology : being a complete series of quotations and answers ... to which are annexed, tables of the bones, muscles and arteries

Front matter

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Dedication

TO WILLIAM E. HORNER, M. D.,

PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY 1ST THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.

Dear Sir :

Section I. Of Anatomy In General

Ques. 1. What is Anatomy?

Ans. Anatomy is that science which teaches the structure of the human body.

Ques. 2. What is morbid anatomy ?

Ans. Morbid anatomy explains the alterations in the structure of the body which are induced by disease.

Ques. 3. What is Physiology ?

Ans. Physiology is that science which teaches us the functions of the body, or the uses of its parts.

ues. 4. What is the general division of the component parts of the human body ?

Ans. They are divided into solids and fluids.

Ques. 5. Enumerate the solids of the body.

Ans. The solids are the bones, cartilages, ligaments, muscles cellular substance, membranes, vessels, nerves, glands, viscera, adipose substance, &c.

Ques. 6. What are bones ?

Ans. Bones are the most hard and" inflexible parts of the body ; affording support and protection to all the rest.

Ques. 7. What are cartilages ?

Ans. Cartilages are the polished, elastic substances covering the ends of bones ; and, excepting these, harder than any other parts.

Ques. 8. What are ligaments ?

Ans. Ligaments, though fine and inelastic, are flexible bodies connecting bones.

Ques. 9. What are muscles ?

Ans. Muscles are bundles of red, soft, and contractile fibres ; the white, hard, and inelastic terminations of which are called tendons ; when in the form of cords, aponeuroses, or fascia, or when expanded as membranes.

Ques. 10, What is the cellular membrane ?

Ans. Cellular membrane is a tissue of interwoven membranes.

Ques. 11. What are membranes ? .

Ans. Membranes are sheets of interwoven fibres.

Ques. 12. What are vessels ?

Ans. Vessels are long, cylindrical, and flexible tubes, dividing and subdividing into smaller branches. They are of three kinds ; 1st, arteries ; 2d, veins ; 3d, lymphatics.

Ques. 13. What are nerves ?

Ans. Nerves are bundles of small white cords, proceeding to or from the brain and spinal marrow.

Ques. 14. What are glands ?

Ans. Glands are distinct bodies formed by a peculiar arrangement of arteries, veins, lymphatics, and nerves, in a cellular parenchyma. There are two kinds of glands : — conglomerate and conglobate. The conglobate are for a peculiar secretion, as the salival glands. The conglomerate are appendages of the absorbent system.

Ques. 15. What are the viscera ?

Ans. The viscera are complicated organs, somewhat loosely contained in the cavities of the body ; such as the stomach, liver, &c.

Quest. 16. What is the adipose substance?

Ans. The adipose substance consists of a cellular substance, within whose interstices an oleaginous fluid is deposited.

Ques. 17. Enumerate the fluids of the human body.

Ans. The fluids of the body are the blood, perspirable matter, urine, sebaceous matter, animal oil, ceruminous matter, saliva, tears, mucus, bile, gastric juice, semen, synovia, pancreatic juice, milk, chyle, &c.

Ques. 18. What is blood ?

Ans. The blood is a fluid which circulates through the veins and arteries, which supplies the body with nutriment, and from which all its other fluids are secreted.

Ques. 19. What is the urine ?

Ans. The urine is a fluid which is secreted by the kidneys.

Ques. 20. What is perspirable matter ?

Ans. The perspirable matter is a fluid exhaled from the minute vessels of the skin.

Ques. 21. What is ceruminous matter?

Ans. The cerumen is a fluid secreted by the ceruminous glands of the meatus auditorius externus.

Ques. 22. What is sebaceous matter ?

Ans. The sebaceous matter is a soapy fluid secreted by the sebaceous glands of the skin.

Ques. 22. What is animal oil ?

Ans. Animal oil is the oleaginous fluid which occupies the cells of the adipose substance and the internal cavities of the bones, where it is called the medullary substance or marrow.

Ques. 23. What is saliva ?

Ans. Saliva is a fluid secreted by the salival glands of the mouth.

Ques. 24. What are the tears ?

Ans. The tears are a fluid secreted by the lachrymal gland in each orbit.

Ques. 25. What is the bile ?

Ans. Bile is a fluid secreted by the liver.

Ques. 26. What is mucus ?

Ans. Mucus is a fluid secreted by the mucous glands of the mouth and nose, &c.

Ques. 27. What is the gastric juice ?

Ans. The gastric juice is a fluid secreted by the stomach.

Ques. 28. What is the semen?

Ans. Semen is a fluid secreted by the testes, vesiculae, seminales, and prostate gland.

Ques. 29. What is the synovia?

Ans. Synovia is a fluid which lubricates the surfaces of joints

Ques. 30. What is the pancreatic juice ?

Ans. Pancreatic juice is a salival fluid secreted by the pancreas.

Ques. 31. By what is milk secreted?

Ans. Milk is a fluid secreted by the glands of the female breasts.

Ques. 32. What is chyle?

Ans. Chyle is a milky fluid obtained by digestion from our food, and passing into the blood vessels is there converted into blood,

Ques. 33. What divisions does the science of anatomy derive from the individual subjects which it considers.

Ans. Each kind of solid substance is considered apart; this occasions the division of anatomy into osteology, osteogeny, syndesmology, chondrology, myology, adenology, bursalogy, angiology, neurology.

Ques. 34. Give the explanation of these terms?

Ans. Osteology treats of the form of perfect bones; osteogeny, of the ossific process or of the growth of bones ; syndesmology, of the ligaments ; chondrology, of the cartilages ; myology, of the muscles, and their appendages — the tendons and aponeuroses ; adenology, of the glands ; splanchnology, of the viscera and organs of sense ; bursalogy, of the bursae mucosae ; angiology, of the vessels ; and neurology, of the nerves.

Section II. Of The Bones In General

Ques. I. What is the periosteum ?

Ans. The periosteum is a membrane which covers the bones every where, and from which they derive their nourishment.

Ques. 2. What is the perichondrium ?

Ans. The perichondrium is the name given to the periosteum where it passes over cartilages.

Ques. 3. What are the uses of the periosteum ?

Ans. The periosteum strengthens the union of bones with their epiphyses, affords attachments for ligaments and muscles, permits the muscles to glide smoothly over the bones, and conducts and supports vessels, in their passage to the bones.

Ques. 4. What is the periosteum interims ?

Ans. A delicate membrane which lines the internal cavities of bones.

Ques. 5. What is the use of the periosteum interims ?

Ans. It forms little sacs to contain the marrow.

Ques. 6. What are the general classes of bones ?

Ans. Bones are divided into three classes ; viz., the long or cylindrical; the broad or flat; and the mixed bones.

Ques. 7. What are the epiphyses of bones?

Ans. The name of epiphyses has been given to the extremities and great projections of the bones in the feetus r which at this time are united to the body of the bones by cartilages.

Ques. 8. What is the general structure of epiphyses ?

Ans. Their internal structure is spongy.

Ques. 9. What are the diaphyses of bones ?

Ans. The middle portions of the long bones placed between the epiphyses are called diaphyses.

Ques. 10. What is the general structure of diaphyses internally ?

Ans. Their interior is reticular.

Ques. 11. What is the general structure of diaphyses externally ?

Ans. Their exterior is compact.

Ques. 12. What are the apophyses of bones?

Ans. Apophyses are great projections, or distinct portions of bones.

Ques. 13. How do apophyses differ from epiphyses ?

Ans. They are distinguished from epiphyses in being less easily separable from the bone to which they belong — no layer of cartilages being interposed between them* The epiphyses of the foetus become apophyses in the adult.

Ques. 14. What is the intimate structure of all bones ?

Ans. Bones consist of a cellular, reticular, and vascular parenchyma ; and of osseous matter deposited in it : their base, therefore, being the same with that of the muscles, nerves, and soft parts of the body.

Ques. 15. Are bones formed in fibres, plates, or lamellae ?

Ans. They,are not.

Ques. 16. Are bones vascular?

Ans. They are at all times vascular ; but they are more especially so during the ossific process.

Ques. 17. Where do their vessels enter 1

Ans. By numerous small foramina all over their external surface.

Ques. 18. What is the best demonstration of the vascularity of bones ?

Ans. Their vascularity is proved by the tinge which they receive in animals with whose food the rubia tinctorum or madder has been mixed. Some very fine specimens of injection, prepared by Professor Horner, are to be found in the Wistar Museum attached to the University of Pennsylvania.

Ques. 19. What is the medulla of bones ?

Ans. The medulla is an oleaginous fluid deposited in their internal cells.

Ques. 20. How is it secreted ?

Ans. It is secreted by minute arteries which ramify upon the sacs of the internal periosteum.

Ques. 21. Where do the medullary arteries of bones penetrate them ?

Ans. They generally penetrate the bones about their middle by oblique canals.

Ques. 22. What is the use of the medulla?

Ans. The use of the medulla is not accurately ascertained. In Soemmering's opinion it tends to render the bones comparatively lighter.

Ques. 23. What names are given to the different parts of bones ?

Ans. The external parts of bones are the following : foramina, canals, sinuses, sinuosities, furrows, notches, fossae, pits, glenoid cavities, cotyloid cavities, tubercles, tuberosities, spines, heads, necks, processes, &c.

Ques. 24. What are foramina ?

Ans. Foramina are holes perforating the substance of 2 bones, without leaving any long track within their substance.

Ques. 25. What are canals ?

Ans. Canals are foramina contained within the substance of bones ?

Ques. 26. What are sinuses?

Ans. Sinuses are great cavities in bones with small openings.

Ques. 27. What are sinuosities ?

Ans. Sinuosities are superficial, but broad irregular depressions.

Ques. 28. What are furrows ?

Ans. Furrows are long, narrow, and superficial canals.

Ques. 29. What are notches ?

Ans. Notches are cavities in the margin of bones.

Ques. 30. What are fossae ?

Ans. Fossae are deep and large cavities upon their surface.

Ques. 31. What are pits ?

Ans. Pits are small though deep depressions.

Ques. 32. What are glenoid cavities ?

Ans. Glenoid cavities are smooth shallow cavities for articulation.

Ques. 33. What are cotyloid cavities ?

Ans. Cotyloid cavities are deep and smooth for articulation.

Ques. 34. What are tubercles ?

Ans. Tubercles are .small eminences.

Ques. 35. What are tuberosities ?

Ans. Tuberosities are greater, rough elevations.

Ques. 36. What are spines ?

Ans. Spines are long projections.

Ques. 37. What are heads ?

Ans. Heads are the round tops of bones.

Ques. 38. What are necks ?

Ans. Necks are the narrow portions of bones beneath their heads.

Ques. 39. What are processes ?

Ans. Processes are projecting portions of bones.

Section III. Of Articulation In General

Ques. 1. What is the articulation of bones ?

Ans. The connexion of bones with each other is called articulation : which is divided into three classes.

Ques. 2. What are the general classes of articulation ?

Ans. The general classes of articulations are symphysis, synarthrosis, and diarthrosis.

Ques. 3. What is symphysis ?

Ans. Symphysis expresses the substance connecting bones.

Ques. 4. What is synarthrosis ?

Ans. Synarthrosis expresses the immoveable connexion of bones.

Ques. 5. What is diarthrosis 1

Ans. Diarthrosis means the moveable connexion of bones.

Ques. 6. What are the subdivisions of symphysis ?

Ans. Symphysis is subdivided into synostosis, syndesmosis, synchondrosis, and syssarcosis.

Ques. 7. What are the genera of synarthrosis ? Ans. Synarthrosis is subdivided into suture, harmonia, schindylesis and gomphosis.

Ques. 8. What are the genera of diarthrosis ? Ans. Diarthrosis is subdivided into enarthrosis, arthrodia, amphiarthrosis, and ginglymus.

Ques. 9. What is synostosis 1

Ans. Synostosis means the conjunction of bones by osseous matter ; as that of the sphenoid and occipital.

Ques. 10. What is syndesmosis ?

Ans. It expresses conjunction by ligaments as in all moveable joints.

Ques. 11. What is synchondrosis ?

Ans. Synchrondrosis expresses conjunction by cartilage ; as that of the ribs and sternum.

Ques. 12. What is syssarcosis ?

Ans. Syssarcosis expresses conjunction by muscles ; as in all moveable joints.

Ques. 13. What is sy neurosis ?

Ans. Syneurosis expresses conjunction by membranes ; as that of the radius and ulna.

Ques. 14. What is meant by suture ?

Ans. Suture expresses conjunction by indented margins ; as that of the two parietal bones.

Ques. 15. What is meant by harmonia?

Ans. It expresses conjunction by straighter margins ; as that of the ossa nasi.

Ques. 16. What is meant by schindylesis ?

Ans. It is that articulation where the spine of one bone is received into the furrow of another ; as the vomer receives the azygos process of the sphenoid bone.

Ques. 17. What is gomphosis ?

Ans. It is that conjunction by which the teeth are placed in the sockets.

Ques. 18. What is enarthrosis?

Ans. It expresses the reception of the head of one bone by a deep cavity in another ; as the acetabulum receives the head of the femur.

Ques. 19. What is arthrodia?

Ans. Arthrodia expresses the reception of the head of one bone by a superficial cavity of another ; as the glenoid cavity of the scapula receives the head of the humerus.

Ques. 20. What is amphiarthrosis ?

Ans. It expresses conjunction of bones by plain surfaces ; as those of the cuneiform and metatarsal bones.

Ques. 21. What is meant by ginglymus articulation?

Ans. Ginglymus expresses the hinge-like articulation ; as that of the elbow joint, of which there are three kinds ; namely, ginglymus simplex, ginglymus compositus, and ginglymus trochoides.

Ques. 22. What is ginglymus simplex ?

Ans. Ginglymus simplex is that species where corresponding, elevated, and depressed surfaces constitute one joint ; as that of the elbow.

Ques. 23. What is ginglymus compositus 1

Ans. It is that species where two different hinge-like joints serve one purpose ; as in the articulation of the radius and ulna.

Ques. 24. What is ginglymus trochoides ?

Ans. It is that species where one bone turns round the point of another ; as the atlas moves upon the process of the dentata.

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Section IV. Of Osteogeny

Ques. 1 . What is the name of that division of anatomy which treats of the growth of bones ?

Ans. Osteogeny.

Ques. 2. How are bones formed ?

Ans. They are formed by the deposition of ossific matter, either in membranes or cartilage.

Ques. 3. What are the constituent parts of bones ?

Ans. Their constituent parts are a cellular and vascular parenchyma, and a phosphate of lime with other saline combinations.

Ques. 4. What are the phenomena of ossification ?

Ans. Ossification is thus effected : the arteries of the part about to undergo this process become dilated ; though formerly transparent they now assume a red colour ; the cartilage itself is not transmuted into bone, but becomes gradually absorbed whilst the ossific matter is deposited in its place.

Ques. 5. How does ossification take place in the diaphysis of long bones ?

Ans. In the diaphysis of long bones this process begins in the middle, forming flat rings between the external and internal periosteum.

Ques. 6. How does ossification take place in the epiphysis of long bones ?

Ans. At their epiphyses in distinct points, which gradually unite.

Ques. 7. How does ossification take place in the bones of the cranium ?

Ans. It assumes the appearance of radii diverging from a centre.

Ques. 8. What bones are perfectly formed at birth ?

Ans. The small bones of the ear.

Ques. 9. What bones are the latest ossified ?

Ans. The epiphyses.

Ques. 10. When does ossification in the epiphyses terminate ?

Ans. About seven or eight years of age.

Ques. 11. At what period are the epiphyses united to the diaphyses ?

Ans. About twenty, years of age they are converted into apophyses by bony union with the diaphyses.

Section V. Of The Head And Its Sutures

Ques. 1. How are the bones of the head divided 1

Ans. The bones of the head are divided into those belonging to the cranium and those belonging to the face.

Ques. 2. What is the general structure of the bones of the cranium ?

Ans. The bones of the cranium consist of two tables or bony plates, and an intermediate diploe.

Ques. 3. Which of its tables is thickest ?

Ans. The external table is thickest.

Ques. 4. What is the diploe of the bones of the cranium ?

Ans. It is of a cellular structure, like the epiphyses of the long bones.

Ques. 5. What is the name of the membrane covering the cranium ?

Ans. Pericranium is the name given to the periosteum of these bones.

Ques. 6. What is the structure of the bones of the face 1

Ans. The bones of the face are of an irregular structure.

Ques. 7. Enumerate the bones of the cranium.

Ans. They are eight in number : the os frontis, two ossa parietalia, two ossa temporum, os occipitis, os sphenoides, and os aethmoides.

Ques. 8. What bones are proper to the cranium ?

Ans. Five : two parietal, two temporal, and the occipital.

Ques. 9. What bones are common to the cranium and face ?

Ans. Three ; os frontis, sphenoid, and aethmoid.

Ques. 10. What bones are proper to the face?

Ans. There are fourteen : two ossa nasi, two ossa lachrymalia, two ossa malarum, two ossa maxillaria superiora, two ossa palati, two ossa turbinata inferiora, vomer, and os maxillare inferius.

Ques. 11. What is the situation of the os frontis ?

Ans. The os frontis is situated in the anterior part of the cranium.

Ques. 12. Where are the parietal bones ?

Ans. In the upper and lateral parts of the cranium.

Ques. 13. Where are the temporal bones ?

Ans. In the lower and lateral parts, and partly in the base of the cranium.

Ques. 14. Where is the os occipitis ?

Ans. In the base and back of the cranium.

Ques. 15. In what part of the cranium is the os sphenoides ?

Ans. In the middle of the base, and partly on the sides.

Ques. 16. Where is the os aethmoides?

Ans. In the middle of the forepart of the base of the cranium.

Ques. 17. Where are the ossa nasi ?

Ans. In the arch of the nose.

Ques. 18. Where are the ossa lachrymalia, or ossa unguis ?

Ans. In the anterior part of the nasal sides of the orbits ?

Ques. 19. Where are the ossa malarum?

Ans. In the upper part of the face.

Ques. 20. Where are the ossa maxillaria superiora ?

Ans. In the middle of the face, constituting the upper jaw.

Ques, 21. Where are the ossa palati situated?

Ans. In the back of the orbits, nares, and palate.

Ques. 22. Where are the ossa turbinata inferiora ?

Ans. In the lower part of the sides of the nares.

Ques. 23. Where is the vomer situated 1

Ans. In the middle of the nares.

Ques. 24. What are the sutures of the cranium ?

Ans. The sutures formed by the union of the bones of the cranium, are five in number : the coronal, the sagittal, the lambdoidal, and the two squamous.

Ques. 25. What sutures connect the bones of the cranium and face ?

Ans. The sphenoidal, aethmoidal, transverse, and the two zygomatic sutures.

Ques. 26. What are the harmonia of the face ?

Ans. They are sixteen in number : one perpendicular nasal, two lateral nasal, two lachrymal, two transverse nasal, two external orbital, one mystachial, one transverse palatine, one longitudinal palatine, two maxillo palatine.

Ques. 27. Describe the coronal suture.

Ans. The coronal suture stretches from above an inch behind the temporal side of one orbit, above the superior part of the cranium, to the same place on the other, connecting the two parietal bones to the frontal bone.

Ques. 28. Describe the sagittal suture.

Ans. The sagittal suture extends alongjthe top of the head, from the middle of the coronal to considerably behind the vertex, connecting the parietal bones.

Ques. 29. Describe the lambdoidal suture.

Ans. It begins at the termination of the sagittal, and passes, in the form of the Greek letter a> forward and downward on each side, connecting the occipital bone to the parietal bones.

Ques. 30. Describe the squamous sutures.

Ans. The squamous sutures are of a semicircular form, situated higher upon the cranium than the top of the external ear, connecting on each side the upper edge of the os squamosum, to the lower edge of the os parietale, which it overlaps.

Ques. 31. What are the additamenta suturae lambdoidalis ?

Ans. The continuations on each side of the lambdoidal suture into the base of the cranium, are called the additamenta suturae lambdoidalis.

Ques. 32. What are the additamenta suturae squamosae ?

Ans. The posterior seriated portions of the squamous sutures are called its additamenta.

Ques. 33. Describe the sphenoidal suture.

Ans. The sphenoidal suture surrounds all the edges of the sphenoid bone. . Ques. 34. Describe the aethmoidal suture.

Ans. The sethmoidal suture surrounds all the edges of the bone of the same name.

Ques. 35. Describe the transverse suture.

Ans. The transverse suture extends through the orbits, between the cranium and face, and joins the cranial and facial bones.

Ques. 36. Describe the zygomatic suture.

Ans. The zygomatic suture is situated rather towards the anterior part of the zygoma ; it runs from above downward and backward, connecting the zygomatic processes of the temporal and cheek bones.

Ques. 37. Describe the perpendicular nasal harmonia.

Ans. The perpendicular nasal harmonia is situated in the middle of the nasal arch, connecting the two ossa nasi.

Ques. 38. Describe the lateral nasal harmonia.

Ans. The lateral nasal harmonia are situated on each side of the nasal arch, connecting the ossa nasi to the ossa maxillaria.

Ques. 39. Describe the lachrymal harmonia.

Ans. The lachrymal harmonia surrounds the forepart of the ossa lachrymalia, connecting them to the ossa maxillaria.

Ques. 40. Describe the transverse nasal harmonia.

Ans. The transverse nasal harmonia are situated at the lower part of the nares, internally connecting the ossa turbinata inferiora to the ossa maxillaria.

Ques. 41. Describe the external orbital harmoniae.

Ans. The external orbital harmonias extend from the middle of the lower side of each orbit downward and outward, to the lower part of each os malae, connecting these bones to the ossa maxillaria.

Ques. 42. Describe the internal orbital harmoniae.

Ans. The internal orbital harmoniae extend from the middle of the inferior edge of each orbit to the lower anterior part of the sphenomaxillary fissure, connecting the ossa malarum to the ossa maxillaria.

Ques. 43. Describe the mystachial harmonia.

Ans. They connect the maxillary bones immediately beneath the anterior aperture of the nostrils.

Ques. 44. Describe the transverse palatine harmonia.

Ans. It stretches across the back of the palate, connecting the palatine processes of the palate bones to those of the superior maxillary bones.

Ques. 45. Describe the longitudinal palatine harmonia.

Ans. They extend from the middle of the anterior to the middle of the posterior part of the palate, connecting the palatine processes of the maxillary and palate bones of the one side to those of the other.

Ques. 46. Describe the maxillo palatine harmoniaB.

Ans. They are situated at the back of the sides of the nares, connecting the palate bones to the bulbous processes of the superior maxillary bones.

Ques. 47. What bones of the face does schyndylesis connect ?

Ans. The vomer is connected with the os sphenoides above, and with the palatine and superior maxillary bones below, by schyndylesis.

Ques. 48. What bones of the face does gomphosis connect ?

Ans. The connexion betwixt the teeth and their sockets is an instance of gomphosis.