The standard English grammar

Preface

This book, true to its name, is a standard English grammar. It is not a " language book," but a treatise for the formal study of the grammar of the language. Neither have the authors attempted to combine the functions of a grammar and a work on rhetoric. At this stage of the students' development teachers have felt the need of texts upon the subject of grammar that would be more formal than the elementary beginners' book. In the treatment of the subject effort has been made either to invent new terms or to simplify the subject by the omission of essential parts. Simplification has been secured by the logical arrangement and clear exposition of the subject.

In order to render the work thoroughly progressive nothing is anticipated when anticipation can possibly be avoided; and no part, or division, or subdivision, is introduced without explanation or some reference by which the mind of the pupil is prepared for its reception, until the portion under present consideration has been thoroughly treated. Thus the pupil is enabled to advance intelligently; and the teacher enjoys the satisfaction of knowing that his pupils understand what they are learning.

4 PREFACE.

The terms phrase and clause have been somewhat loosely used in the past, but it is hoped that the restriction of these terms to a more definite meaning is in the interest of clearness.

While it would be an excellent thing if all could be so situated that they would never hear incorrect English, few have been so fortunate as to enjoy this exceptional advantage. All pupils who are old enough to study formal grammar have heard much incorrect language. Having heard it and used it, they should now be taught why it is incorrect. They should be taught the rules governing the correct use of English, and they should be drilled upon the correct forms of expression. To this end enough "false syntax" has been used to secure a knowledge of correct English construction.

To Dr. Edgar A. Singer, one of the original authors, and to Dr. Martin (i. Brumbaugh, Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Pennsylvania, are ilue the thanks of the reviser for their careful criticism of the manuscript.

(i. W. Flounders.

Contents

PAGE

Grammar, Definition and Divisions of . 9

Part I. Orthography

Letters, Definitions and Classes of ........ 10

Words 12

Spelling 13

Part II. Etymology

Classes op Words 14

Parts of Speech, Definitions of 14

Nouns, Classes of 16

Properties of 17

Number 17

Person 23

Case . 27

Declension of 28

Parsing 30

Exercises in 30

6 COX TEXTS.

PAGE

Pronouns 31

Properties of 31

Personal 32

Compound Personal 33

Relative 35

Compound Relative 36

Interrogative 38

Articles 40

Adjectives -11

Pronominal 42

( lomparison of 45

Verbs 4S

Classes of, according to meaning 49

Properties of 50

Voice 50

Mode 51

Tense 53

Number and Person 58

Participles r, 7

Classes ol Verba according to form • )!l

Principal Parts *'"

List of [rregular Verbs <>'

Defective 88

Lis! of 88

Auxiliary '"

( onjugal i'>n "i <>s

Auxiliaries ,,s

To I y oice >8

Progressive l orm, To Learn 81

[nterrogative Form, To See ... 83

Negative Form s '

Negative-Interrogative Form s '

Adverbs ss

( ilasBee of ....

Conjunctive 80

Comparison of ^

Prepositions 83

CONTENTS. 7

PAGE

Conjunctions 94

Interjections 96

Part III. Syntax

Sentences, Definition of 100

Classes of, according to use 100

Classes of, according to form 101

Divisions of Syntax 104

Analysis 105

Distinctions of Subject and Predicate 106

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate . . . 106, 107

Complete Subject and Complete Predicate . . . 107

Compound Subject and Compound Predicate . . 108

Exercises on Subjects and Predicates .... 109

Independent Parts 110

Qualifications of Simple Subject Ill

Qualifications of Qualifying Words 112

Qualifications of Simple Predicate 114

Qualifications of Qualifying Words 115

Classification of Phrases 116

Classification of Clauses 117

Analysis of Sentences 118

General Exercises in Analysis ........ 120

Synthesis 122

Rules oe Syntax 123

Rule I.— Subject of Finite Verb . 124

Rule II. — Nominative Case Independent 127

Rule III. — Possessive Case 129

Rule D7 —Objective Case 132

Rule V. — Apposition 136

Rule VI.— Same Case after Verbs 139

Rule VII.— Personal Pronouns 140

Rule VIII.— Relative Pronouns 144

Rule IX.— Articles 148

8 CONTEXTS.

PAGE

Rules of Syntax —

Rule X. — Adjectives 151

Rule XL — Pronominal Adjectives 155

Rule XII. — Agreement of Finite Verbs 158

Rule XIII.— Infinitives 162

Rule XIV.— Participles 166

Rule XV.— Adverbs 169

Rule XVI. — Prepositions 172

Rule XVII. — Conjunctions 177

Rule XVIII. — Interjections 181

General Rule 1S1

Figures 183

Figures of Syntax ls|

Figures of Rhetoric lst

Capitals ls,i

Punctuation lss

Period I 88

Interrogation Point ls '-'

Exclamation Point " , "

Colon IW

Semicolon ''- 1 '

Comma '•'-

I lash, I lurves, Brackets I!,,)

Quotation Marks IW

THE

STANDARD ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Grammar is the science which treats of the correct use of language.

Science is the principles of any branch of knowledge arranged according to a system, or in regular order.

Language is the means by which human beings express their thoughts in words. Language is either spoken or written.

English Grammar is the science which treats of the correct use of the English language, both in speaking and in writing.

English Grammar may be divided into three parts: — Orthography, Etymology, and Syntax.

Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches how to spell correctly.

Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify them, and shows their changes of form and meaning.

Syntax treats of Sentences, and teaches how to construct them from words.

Part I. Orthography

Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches how to spell correctly.

Letters are particular marks or signs used to represent certain sounds of ili«- human voice.

Tlie soimd> of all words in the English language can l>e represented by different combinations of the twenty-six letters in its alphabet

CLASSES OF LETTERS.

Letters are divided into two classes; Vowels ami Consonants.

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, perfect sound; as, <i, e, <>.

A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound that can he perfectly made only with the aid of a vowel; as, J, /,-, i,

VOWELS.

A Vowel is a letter w bich represents a simple, perfect sound

'The VOWels are </. , , i, <>, u, and sometimes "' and //

W nr // i> a vowel when it ends a word or a syllable; when it i> not followed in die -aim- syllable by a vowel; or when it i- followed in the same syllable by a vowel not sounded; as, boy, lowly; grown, sylph; styl* , iiu-i . In every other position w or y is a consonant.

, in,

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 11

Exercise. — Mention the vowels and the consonants in the following words, and give the reasons: — Animal, muslin, grammar, thousand, mountain, happiness, board, school, arithmetic, December, bread, wonder, beware, dwell, youth, destiny, myrtle, sympathy, knowledge, lawyer, strength, journey, phlegm, plague, weigh.

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.

When two vowels are used to represent one sound, they form what is called a Diphthong; as, oa in load; oi in voice.

There are two kinds of diphthongs; Proper and Improper.

A Proper Diphthong is one m which both vowels are sounded; as, ou in mouse; oy in joyful. There are four proper diphthongs; oi, ou, oy, and ow.

An Improper Diphthong is one m which but one of the vowels is sounded; as, ea in beat; eu in neuter. Improper diphthongs are very numerous.

When three vowels are used to represent one sound, they form what is called a Triphthong; as, eau in beauty; lew in view.

There are two kinds of triphthongs; Proper and Improper.

A Proper Triphthong is one in which all three vowels are sounded; as, uoy in buoy.

An Improper Triphthong is one in which but one or two of the vowels are sounded; as, eye, and ieu in lieu. The principal improper triphthongs are ieu, eau, lew.

The consonant q is always followed by u; when so placed u is never considered as a part of a diphthong or a triphthong.

Exercise .—Mention the proper and the improper diphthongs and triphthongs in the following words, and give the reasons : — Moaning, employ, outset, beauty, though, plough, review, chair, growling, lieu, slaughter, news, learn, coast, thief, loud, buoy, quoit, eye, gracious, herbaceous, outlie, broad, heroes, receive, ocean.

12 CONSONANTS— S YLLABLES— WORDS.

CONSONANTS.

A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound that can be perfectly made only with the aid of a vowel,

The consonants are divided into two classes; Semi-vowels and Mutes.

Semi-vowels are letters which can be imperfectly sounded without the aid of a vowel; as, c, j, v y.

They are c soft, /, _'/ -oft. Ii, j, I, m n r, s v u\ x, y, and z.

C has its soft sound (the sound of s) before < , i, and y; before other letters it has the sound of /;.

G has its soft sound (the sound of ;') before e, i, and y; there are, however, some exceptions.

Four of the semi-vowels, /, m, n, and r, are called Liquids, on account of their smooth and Bowing sound.

Mutes are letters which r; t ii not be sounded without the aid of a vowel : as, p, 7, / k.

They are b, e hard, </, 7 hard, /.-. p 7. and t.

SYLLABLES.

A Syllable is a letter, <>r B Dumber of letters, which, when uttered, form one unbroken sound; a>, for, o-far.

A syllable may Im- either a word or a |»art of a word; if written, it

always contains, a vowel; it' spoken, ■ vowel Bound.

WORDS.

A Written Word i- a letter, or a number of letters properly combined, used as the sign of some idea; as, /. day, army.

A Spoken Word is a sound, or a number of sounds combined, used to express some idea

Wordd are named according to the number of syllables which they contain

A word which contain- one syllable is called a Monosyllable; as. truth: otic which contains two syllables is

DIVISION OF WORDS—SPELLING. 13

called a Dissyllable; as, truthful: one which contains three syllables is called a Trisyllable; as, untruthful: one which contains more than three syllables is called a Polysyllable; as, untruthfulness, incomprehensible.

Division of Words.

Words are divided according to their formation into Simple, or Compound; Primitive, or Derivative.

A Simple Word is one which is not formed by uniting two or more words; as, hand, paper, father.

A Compound Word is one which is formed by the union of two or more simple words; as, hand-machine, newspaper. The words forming a compound are sometimes connected by the hyphen {-) ; as, fatherin-law.

A Primitive Word is one which is not formed from any other word in the same language, but is in its first or simplest form; as, sin, wind, lady.

A Derivative Word is one which is formed from a primitive word by some change, or by prefixing or suffixing another syllahle or word; as, sinful, windy, lady-like.

Exercise. — Tell to which of the above-named divisions each of the following words belongs, and give the reason : — Breakfast, fleetness, lover, within, uneasy, self-taught, teach, statesman, write, movable, president, circle, prison-ship, copying, useful, store-house, citizen, chief, harmed, certain, poet, penman, outlaw, evergreen, star-gazer.

SPELLING.

Spelling is the art of combining letters properly, to form syllables and words. This art is best learned from spellingbooks and dictionaries, and from observation in reading.