Human anatomy, physiology and hygiene

Front matter

BROWN'S SERIES

OF

English Grammars

Preface

In the following pages the author has endeavored to present, in as simple and clear a manner as possible, the most important facts relating to the anatomy, physiology, and hygiene of the human body.

Of late years physicians have laid great stress upon the study of the prevention of disease ; and, keeping pace with this improvement, the laity have become better informed about matters pertaining to the care of the body than formerly. The great utility of such knowledge has led to the enactment of laws in New York and other States making provision for the study of physiology and hygiene in the public schools, with special reference to the effects of stimulants and narcotics upon the human system. Such legislative provisions are very gratifying. Proper instruction to children on these subjects must do much to diminish the amount of sickness and raise the general standard of health.

The author has endeavored to use the simplest terms compatible with clearness. A certain number of technical terms are unavoidable ; these are denned in the glossary at the end of the volume.

The lessons will be made more interesting and valuable if illustrated by the various tissues obtainable at the butchers' ; thus, the heart of a calf will serve nicely to show the general shape and arrangement of cavities and valves in the human

IV PREFACE.

heart. In the same way other organs and tissues should be utilized by the teacher to elucidate the various parts of the body. The skeleton and its different parts should be before the class in reciting upon the bones.

In the description of the effects of stimulants and narcotics upon the human body, only such statements have been made as can be found in the works of standard authors on these subjects. It is not necessary to deviate from the truth in order to impress children with the great amount of bodily harm and misery which the extensive indulgence in stimulants and narcotics causes.

The synopsis given at the end of each chapter is intended to be of use in reviews and in guiding the teacher in a systematic presentation of the subject.

CHAELES H. MAY, M.D.

THIED EDITIOK

In this edition the author has made some desirable changes and additions. A number of the illustrations have been made even finer than at first. It has also been thought advisable to devote a separate chapter to the consideration of the effects of stimulants and narcotics. C. H. M.

692 Madison Avenue, New York.

New York State Edition. — In conformity with " An Act to Amend the Consolidated School Law Providing for the Study of the Nature and Effects of Alcoholic Drinks and other Narcotics, in Connection with Physiology and Hygiene in the Public Schools. " Approved June 15, 1895, to take effect August 1, 1895.

Contents

CHAPTEE I.

Introduction

The Human Body the Highest Form of Living Being — What Hygiene Treats of — What Anatomy Teaches Us — What we Learn by the Study of Physiology — Differences in Meaning of Terms Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene — Different Forms of Animal Life — Life in Plants — Differences between Plants and Animals— Organs — Functions — Subdivisions of the Body — Tissues — Further Subdivisions, the Cell, the Fibre— Parts of the Body— The Head and Neck— The Trunk — The Upper Limbs — The Fingers— The Lower Limbs — Synopsis of Introduction — Questions on Introduction , 13

CHAPTEK II.

The Framework or Skeleton.

Position in the Higher Animals — Uses of Bones : Support, Protection, Strength, Motion — Number of Bones — Forms of Bones : Long, Short, Flat, Irregular — Structure of Bone : Surface, Interior, Periosteum, Spaces, Color — Composition of Bone — Variations in Composition in Early and in Advanced Life — Care of the Skeleton : Effects of Faulty Position, Tight Clothing, Improperly-shaped Shoes, Stimulants and • Narcotics, Poor Health — Fracture of a Bone — Parts of the Skeleton : Head, Trunk, Upper and Lower Limbs — Bones of the Head : Cranium and Face — The Cranium : Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal, etc. ; Ragged Edges — The Face : Orbits ; Nose ; Nasal and Malar Bones ; Upper and Lower Jaws— Mobility of the Skull— Bones of the Trunk — The Spinal Column ; Sacrum and Coccyx ; Canal for Spinal Cord —The Pelvis — The Hip-Bone — The Collar-Bone — The Shoulder-

VI CONTENTS.

Blade— The Breast-Bone— The Ribs: True, False, Floating — The Chest : Boundaries ; the Diaphragm — The Bones of Upper Limb — The Humerus — The Bones of the Forearm; Radius, Ulna — The Bones of the Wrist and Hand : the Wrist, the Palm, the Fingers — The Bones of the Lower Limb— The Femur — The Patella— The Bones of the Leg : Tibia, Fibula — The Bones of the Foot : the Heel, Instep, Toes — Synopsis of Skeleton — Questions on the Skeleton. 21

CHAPTEE III.

The Joints.

Definition — Uses — Subdivision — Immovable Joints — Sutures — Slightly- Movable Joints : General Arrangement, Ligaments, Varieties : Gliding, Hinge, Pivot, Ball-and- Socket — Accidents to Joints — Synopsis of Joints — Questions on the Joints 41

CHAPTEE IV.

The Muscles and Motion.

Function of Muscles — Description of Muscle-tissue — Tendons — Fat — Uses of Fat: Warmth, Protection, Food, Appearance — Kinds of Muscle-tissue — Voluntary Muscles — Involuntary Muscles — Mixed Muscles — How Muscles Act — Influence of the Brain and Nerves — Ordinary Muscular Movements very Complex — Groups of Muscles — Facial Expressions — Number of Muscles — Shape of Muscles — Size of Muscles— A Few Important Muscles: Biceps, Triceps, Pectoralis, Diaphragm— Tendon of Achilles— The Care of Muscles— Exercise : Necessity, Amount, Kind, Proper and Improper — Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on Muscles— Changes in Muscle by Use of Alcohol— Synopsis of Muscles and Motion— Questions on Muscles and Motion 47

CHAPTEE V.

Food and Drink.

Necessity for Food and Drink— Essential to Life— Difference in Food of Plants and of Animals — Difference in the Food of Different Animals —Carnivorous Animals — Herbivorous Animals— Different Kinds of

CONTKNTS. Vll

Food Required by Man — Fleshy Food — Vegetable Food — Starch Green Vegetables Fal and Fatty Food — Water— Tea and Coffee

Necessity for Combination of all Forms of Food and Water Some of the Simplest Forms of Food — Meat and Fish — Bread — Milk: Cream, Butter, Cheese — Eggs — Variety in Food — Proper Food — Methods of Cooking : Boiling, Stewing, Frying, Broiling, Roasting, Baking — Cautions Regarding Eating — Drinking-water — Dangers of Well-water — How Poisoning Occurs— How Avoided — Synopsis of Food and Drink — Questions on Food and Drink G3

CHAPTEE VI.

Digestion.

Definition — The Various Organs of Digestion — Alimentary Canal — The Mouth — Teeth : Temporary, Permanent — Parts of Teeth — Structure of Teeth— Names of Teeth— Care of the Teeth— The Salivary Glands : Parotid, Sublingual, Submaxillary — Saliva— Effects of Chewing Gum —The Throat— The Tongue— The Gullet— The Stomach : Description, Pylorus, Coats— Gastric Juice — Gastric Tubules — Pepsin — Function of Gastric Juice — Uses of Stomach : Digestion, Storehouse, Pulverizer — Stomachs in Certain Lower Animals — Effect of Tobacco on Stomach — Effect of Alcohol on Stomach — Discovery of How the Stomach Acts— " Heavy " and "Light" Food— The Bowels: Subdivisions, Pylorus, Duodenum, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Attachment to Backbone, Coats — The Peritoneum — Motion of Intestines—Projections on Inner Surface of Intestines — The Work of the Intestines : Digestion — Starchy, Fatty, Fleshy Food — Openings into Small Intestines: From Pancreas, From Liver — The Liver and Gall-bladder : Position, Description — Uses of the Liver : Bile, Purify Blood, Remove Impurities — Liver Cells — Bile — Action of Bile — Purification of Blood by Liver — The Liver as a Storehouse for Nourishment — The Unhealthy Liver : Gout— The Drunkard's Liver — The Pancreas: Pancreatic Juice — Uses of Pancreatic Juice — Absorption — Method of Absorption by Blood vessels — Lacteals — Habits which are Injurious to Proper Digestion : Eating too Quickly, Eating too Much, Eating too Many Sweets and Sours, Chewing Gum, Ice-water in Large Quantity, Violent Exercise after Meals, Severe Brain work after Meals, Bathing after Meals, Excite-

VI 11 CONTENTS.

ment, Alcoholic Drink, Smoking — The Spleen : Description, Position, Use, Enlargement — Synopsis of Digestion — Questions on Digestion 74

CHAPTEE VII.

The Blood and the Circulation— The Heart and the Blood-vessels.

Importance of the Blood — Appearance of the Blood, Color — Composition of the Blood : Fluid, Globules — Blood-globules : Number — Microscope — Bed Blood-globules— White Blood-globules — The Plasma— The Blood of Other Animals — Use of the Bed Blood globules — Use of the Plasma — Difference between the Blood in Arteries and the Blood in Veins — Clotting of the Blood — Value of the Clotting of Blood — The Circulation : How Seen in the Frog — The Heart — Situation of the Heart — Form of the Heart — The Pericardium — Cavities of the Heart, Grooves, Auricles, Ventricles — Function of the Heart— Frequency of the Heart-beats— Course of the Blood — Circulation through the Lungs — Changes in the Blood while Passing through the Lungs and through the System : The Aorta — Valves of the Heart — The Blood-vessels : Arteries, Veins, Capillaries — The Arteries — The Pulse — The Capillaries — The Veins : Differences between Veins and Arteries — Valves of the Veins— Rapidity of the Circulation of the Blood — Fainting: Its Treatment— Bleeding : Its Treatment, Hemorrhage — How to Have a Good Circulation — Exercise — Effects of Alcohol upon the Heart and the Circulation — Effect of Alcohol upon the Arteries ; Apoplexy — Effects of Tobacco upon the Heart and Circulation, "Tobacco Heart" — The Lymphatics, Difference between them and Arteries, Use, Course ; Lacteals — Synopsis of the Blood and the Circulation, the Heart and the Blood-vessels — Questions on Chapter VII 100

CHAPTER VIII.

The Organs of Voice and Breathing.

Definitions— Course of the Inspired Air— The Organ of Voice— The Larynx — Form and Situation — Parts of Larynx— Triangular and Circular Pieces — The Epiglottis — The Vocal Cords — Their Protection of the

CONTENTS. IX

Windpipe — The Voccil Cords in Breathing — How Sounds arc I'rodaoed — The Varieties of Vocal Sounds Speaking — The Trachea or Windpipe — Situation and Form — The Air-passage and the Food-passage — Rings of the Windpipe— Branching of the Windpipe The

Bronchi — The Lungs — Division and Situation— Shape of the Lungs — Structure of the Lungs — Subdivision of the Bronchi — Tlie Air-vesicles — The Pleura — Breathing is Involuntary — Movements of the Chest in Breathing — Mouth-breathing — Frequency of Breathing — Changes which Breathing Produces in the Blood and Tissues — Changes Produced in the Air by Breathing — The Poisonous Gases — Effects of Impure Air — Purification of the Air — How Plants Live and Grow — Ventilation — Simple Means of Ventilating — Absence of Draughts — Necessity for Sunlight — Effect of Tight Clothing upon Breathing — The Deformed Chest — Effects of Tobacco Smoke upon the Lungs and Throat — Synopsis of Organs of Voice and Respiration — Questions on Organs of Voice and Respiration 125

CHAPTEE IX.

The Heat of the Body.

Our Body may be Compared to a Stove — Fuel — Combustion — Work, the Result of the Combustion of Fuel — Refuse, another Result of the Burning of Fuel — The Results of the Combustion of Food — Casting off the Refuse Materials from the Body— Food and Oxygen Produce Heat and Work — Warm-blooded and Cold-blooded Animals — Heat of the Human Body in Health — Heat of the Human Body at the Surface — Heat of the Body in Sickness — Regulation of the Bodily Heat — Warm Clothing — How to Keep Warm in Winter — How to Keep Cool in Summer — How the Body is Kept Cool in Summer — Effects of the Passage of Moisture into the Air — Perspiration — Ice-water in Summer — Sunstroke — Effects of Cold — Synopsis of the Heat of the Body — Questions on the Heat of the Body 143

CHAPTER X.

Stimulants.

Stimulants— Definition and Examples— Drugs as Stimulants — Water and Food as Stimulants— How Stimulants Act— Stimulation and Depression — Discovery of Alcohol — Derivation of Name — Alcoholic Drinks

X CONTENTS.

— Xon-Alcoholic Drinks — Properties of Alcohol— Spirit or Spirit of Wine — Uses of Alcohol —Varnish — Tinctures — Preservation of Tissues — Alcohol Thermometers — How Alcohol is Made — Fermentation — Changes produced by Fermentation — What Caused by — Minute Living Bodies in the Air — Germs— Varieties of — Yeast — Fermentation in Bread — Requisites for Fermentation — Acetous and Alcoholic Fermentation—Acetous Fermentation — Vinegar — Alcoholic or Vinous Fermentation — Distillation — Varieties of Alcoholic Drinks — Malt Liquors — Beer — Ale— Porter — Stout — Cider — Sweet and Hard — Wines — Varieties of Wines — Red and White — Sweet and Dry — Effervescent — Home-made Wines — Distilled Spirits or Liquors — Varieties of — Whiskey — Brandy — Rum — Gin — Absinthe — Arrack — Cordials — Bitters, Tonics, Elixirs, and Patent Medicines — Artificially Prepared Alcoholic Drinks —General Effects of Alcohol and Alcoholic Drinks — W T hen Prescribed by Physicians — Injury to the World which Alcohol Does — Not Ordinarily a Food — Cause of Crime — Less Used as a Medicine than Formerly — Danger of Creating Alcohol Habit when Used as a Medicine — No Nourishment in Alcoholic Drinks — Effects of Alcohol Upon the Tissues and Functions of the Body — Effects of Alcohol Upon the Stomach— On the Intestines — On the Liver — On the Muscles— On the Skeleton — On the Heart — On the Blood-vessels — Apoplexy — Effects of Alcohol upon the Skin — On the Lungs — On the Nervous System — On the Brain — On the Spinal Cord— On the Nerves — Drunkenness— Delirium Tremens — Effects of Alcohol upon the Sight — On the Heat of the Body — On Muscular Strength and Power of Endurance — Training — Effect of Alcohol upon the Power to Resist Disease and to Recover from Accidents — Alcohol and the Expectancy of Life— Life Insurance — Moral Effects of Alcoholic Drink— The Alcohol Habit — Dipsomania — Alcohol is a Costly Vice— Alcohol and Crime. 154

Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, and Chocolate — Desirable Stimulants — Coffee — General Effects of — Disagreeable Effects of — Tea — Cocoa and Chocolate 182

Coca Leaves and Cocaine — History of— Effects of — Cocaine — Effects of — Cocaine Poisoning — The Cocaine Habit 184

CHAPTER XL

Narcotics.

Narcotics — Effects of — Examples — Tobacco— Origin of Name — History of Tobacco — Cultivation of Tobacco — Preparation of Tobacco— Compo-

CONTENTS. xi

sition of Tobacco — Nicotine — Effects of Tobacco upon the System — The Tobacco Babit Tobacco as a Medicine — Injurious Kffects of To baoco upon the Adult— Smokers' Sore Throat— Tobacco Heart— Tobacco Blindness — Tobacco Nervousness— Injurious Effects of Tobacco on the Young — Influence of Tobacco upon Muscular Strength and tin; Power of Endurance — Cigarette Smoking — Other Objections to the Tobacco Habit — Smoking is an Expensive Habit— Opium and Morphine—Preparation of Opium — Physical Properties of Opium and Morphine — Opiates — Laudanum— Dover's Powder— Paregoric — Effects of Opium and Morphine — Opium and Morphine Poisoning — The Opium and Morphine Habit — Pangs of — Results of — Chloral or Chloral Hydrate— Appearance of — Uses of — The Chloral Habit —Effects of— Absinthe— Effects of- The Absinthe Habit— Hashish —Chloroform— Uses of— The Chloroform Habit 194

CHAPTER XH.

The Nervous System.

Parts of the System Already Described —Functions Existing in both Animals and Plants— Similarity in the Structure of Plants and Animals — Absence of Nervous System in Plants— Most Perfect Nervous System in Man — Function of the Nervous System — Subdivisions of the Nervous System — Brain — Spinal Cord — Nerves — Examples of the Action of the Nervous System — Rapidity of Action of the Nervous System — Coverings of the Brain— Size and Weight of the Brain — Divisions of the Brain : Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla — The Cerebrum — Gray and White Parts of the Cerebrum — The Cerebellum — The Medulla — The Cranial Nerves : Twelve Sets— Functions of the Brain — Mind, Will, Thought, Memory, Intelligence— The Work of the Brain— Reason and Judgment — Intelligence— Training the Brain — The Spinal Cord — Interior of the Spinal Cord— The Spinal Nerves — Kinds of Nerves : Sensation and Motion — Functions of the Spinal Cord — Reflex Action — Examples of Reflex Action — Sleep— Amount of Sleep— Sleep of Children — Uses of Sleep— Time for Sleep — Nervousness— Wakefulness— Effects of Alcohol upon the Nervous System — Delirium Tremens— Effects of Tobacco upon the Nervous System — Effects of Coffee and Tea upon the Nervous System — The Sympathetic System of Nerves — Synopsis of the Nervous System — Questions on the Nervous System 210

Xll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIII.

The Senses.

Definition —Enumeration — Special Senses.

The Sense of Touch and the Skin — Thickness — Uses of Skin— Protection — The Skin as the Organ of Sensation — Throwing Off Water, Salts, and Poisonous Matters — Regulating the Bodily Warmth — Structure of the Skin — Scarf-Skin — True Skin — Color of the Skin— Markings of Skin — Attachments of Skin — The Perspiration-tubes — The Pores — Perspiration — Sensible and Insensible Perspiration— Uses of the Perspiration—The Oil-Tubes— The Hair— The Nails— Care of the Skin — The Results of Uncleanliness and Filth— Bathing — Warm Baths — Cold Baths— Turkish and Russian Baths — Clothing — Exercise — Cosmetics — Care of the Hair — Care of the Nails — Synopsis of Sense of Touch and the Skin — Questions on the Sense of Touch and the Skin 231

The Nose and the Sense of Smell — Functions of Nose — Breathing Channel and Smelling Channel — Parts of the Nose— Nerves of Smell — Sense of Smell in Lower Animals — Cold in the Head — Use of Smell — Sweet Scents — Synopsis of Nose and Sense of Smell — Questions on Nose and Sense of Smell 242

The Tongue and the Sense of Taste — Structure of Tongue — Uses of Tongue — Uses of Sense of Taste — Abuse of Sense of Taste — Synopsis of Tongue and Sense of Taste — Questions on Tongue and Sense of Taste 246

The Eye and the Sense of Sight — Protections to the Eye — The Eyelids — The Eyebrows and Eyelashes — Parts of the Eye — Interior of the Eye — The Iris — The Muscles of the Eye — How we See— Resemblance of the Eye to the Photographer's Camera — The Nerves of the Eye — Blindness — Images— The Tears — Care of the Eyes : Rest for the Eyes, Fine Print, Direction of the Light, Reading while Lying Down, Reading in the Cars, Contagious Eye Disease, Stooping in Reading — Weak Sight — Old Sight — Synopsis of Eye and Sense of Sight — Questions on the Eye and Sense of Sight 248

0ONTENT8. xin

The Ear and the Sense of Hearing — Parts of the Ear— The Outer Bar The Middle Ear— The Bones of the Ear— The Eustachian Tube— The Internal Ear — The Nerve of Hearing — Sound — How we Hear — Deaf

Mutes— Care of the Ear— Synopsis of the Ear and the Sense of Bearing — Questions on the Ear and the Sense of Hearing

Glossary . . 2G5 o >