The modern packing house; a complete treatise on the designing, construction, equipment and operation of a modern abattoir and packing house, according to present American practice, including formulas for the manufacture of lard and sausage, the curing of meats, etc., and methods of converting all by-products into commercial articles

Front matter

Class „_T3i3Jl^ GopyriglitN?

COFffilGHT deposit;

THE MODERN

Preface

In the preparation of this work, the first complete treatise upon the subject of the packing house business ever published, two objects. have jbeen kept constantly in view. It was determined, first, to present in a convenient and simple form, practical suggestions, tables and formula that are needed daily in the operation of a plant and in the prosecution of the packing house business along modern lines. Second, it was determined to describe each operation in all the various ramifications of the business, from the unloading of the animals at the pens to the production of the finished product and the disposition of same, in the same order in which the different operations are actually conducted.

In adopting this course, the author and the publishers have been largely influenced by the ^fact that inquiries are constantly being made asking for information regarding the various methods pursued by packers in obtaining the results described in this work, which would seem to indicate that this arrangement of the subject matter would best subserve the needs of a very large proioortion of those operating and conducting packing, slaughtering and rendering plants, both large and small.

4 PREFACE

All the various operations described and subjects treated upon have been carefully indexed at the end of the volume, so that any matter upon which it is desired to obtain instant information may be easily and readily found. In addition to this, the author has arranged the chapters and the operations described in each, together with descriptions of the machinery and appliances required for same, in the order in which the various functions should be performed in the packing house, as nearly as it is possible to do so. In fact, the established packer or butcher, as well as the new beginner, if he will carefully digest the contents of this work, will find that he has ready to his hand a vast amount of valuable information of an absolutely reliable character, hitherto unattainable, the knowledge of which will aid him materially in conducting his business to the best advantage.

The chapters on the proper construction and arrangement of the various departments of the modern packing house, contain information rarely found in a work of this character, and which is usually obtained only by the expenditure of a large sum for expert advice. The author has given the reader the full benefit of his many years' experience in the construction and operation of some of the largest, most completely equipped and up-to-date packing house plants in the world.

A large proportion of the contents of this work is devoted to tests showing the value and yields of the various products of a modern packing house, based on prices and conditions existing at the time they were made, in which the percentages and comparisons are

PREFACE 5

absolutely reliable, and which will prove invaluable to those hitherto unable to obtain such data.

The numerous formulas given for the manufacture and preservation of the various products of the packing house are those which have been proven to be the best after many years of experience in using same. In every instance they have been put into the simplest form possible, so that no mistake can be made in applying them to the requirements of the reader.

The information furnished in these pages, which has been carefully compiled and arranged, is based almost entirely upon the author's own personal observation and experience, there being very little mere theorizing upon the possibilities of what may be accomplished by adopting certain prescribed methods. For this reason especially it will be found of great practical value to all who are interested in any way in the packing house business.

Chapter I

Introduction. Suggestions on construction of plant. Construction of packing houses in general. Insurance. Plans for hog slaughterhouse. Plans for hog and cattle slaughtering plant. Plan for small slaughterhouse. Cattle, hog and sheep slaughterhouse.

Chapter II

Systems of refrigeration. Theory of refrigeration. Refrigeration for fresh killed carcasses. The packer's rule for refrigeration. Insulation. Temperatures required. Different applications of refrigeration in the packing house. " Curtain " system of refrigeration. Arrangement of piping in freezers. Various types of coolers. Types of coolers to be avoided.

CHAPTER III. Cattle Handling, Slaughtering and Chilling 72-101

How to handle cattle before slaughtering. Knocking or stunning cattle. Sticking and heading cattle. Foot skinning. Ripping open and leg breaking. Flooring cattle. Breast sawing and caul pulling. Fell cutting. Beef spreaders. Rumping. Fell beating. Gutting.

Backing. Tail sawing. Splitting. Neck splitting. Bruise trimming. Skirt trimming. Beef weighing. Coolers. Care of coolers. Temperatures in coolers. Effect of coolers in preserving meats. Suggestions for handling heef in coolers. Trimming of beef. Eibbing of beef. Loading beef. Weighing and packing beef by lots.

Chapter IV

Tests showing yields of meats and by-products of cattle. Yield of twenty-two native cattle. Yield of fifty-nine Texas cattle. Yield of twenty cattle. Yield of thirty-four cattle. Different cuts of beef.

CHAPTEE V.

Labor in Cattle Killing 116-123

Lists of men employed and wages paid. Cattle killing department for sixty cattle per hour; ditto, seventy cattle per hour ; ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour. Back . cooler gang for sixty cattle ; ditto, seventy cattle per hour ; ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour. Tail trimmers and head boners for sixty cattle per hour; ditto, seventy cattle per hour; ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour.

CHAPTER YL

Handling of hides on killing floor. Proper storage for hides. Shrinkage of hides. Grading of hides. Grubs in hides. Salting of hides. Building of packs of hides. Trimming green hides.

CHAPTER VIL

Oleo fat. Construction of oleo oil house. Location of hashers, etc., in oil house. Grading for oleo oil. Diagram of oleo oil kettle. Enterprise hasher. Settling kettle for oleo oil. Oil house instructions. Oleo seeding truck. Knuckle type oleo oil press. Oleo oil receiver. Oleo oil and stearine packages. Stearine packer. Oil house yields. Scrap vat. Tests on oil house yields. Mutton fat. Test on handling fats in oil house. Kidney and cod pickings and bones. Yields from kidney and cod fat. Test on oleo scrap. Labor in oil house.

CHAPTER YIII.

Preparation of Heads and Feet of Cattle 166-175

Bone department. Bone products. Horns. Cattle head splitter. Skulls. Jaw bones. Feet. Revolving rack for bone washing. Bone saw. Hoof puller. JSTeatsfoot oil. Sinew glue stock. Yield of heads and feet of cattle.

CHAPTER IX.

Essential points in the handling of casings. Classification of casings. Yields of casings.

CHAPTER X.

Construction and operation of a tank house. Diagrams for construction of a modern tank house. Plans for the construction of rendering tank. How to cook a tank. Hydraulic lard and tallow hoop press. Pressing tankage. Hydraulic tankage and fertilizer press. Tank water. Double " stick " dr3'ers. Estimate of production and value of tankage made by evaporating tank water. Table for tank water. Test on tankage. Test on trimmings and seam fat. Test on condemned hogs. Comparative test of sheep heads and jaws to tank and bone house. Test on tripe trimmings. Test on condemned livers. Test on cattle pecks to tank. Test on cattle paunches to tank. Test on hog stomachs to tank. Test on wind pipes to tank. Test on sheep paunches and plucks to tank. Test on sheep offal. Test on neck trimming from trimming floor. Test on sheep feet to tank.

CHAPTEK XI.

Beef pickling formulas. Weasancl meat. Beef tongues. Test on freezing beef tongues. Canning tongues. Test on canning tongiies. Livers. Liver truck. Design for modern defrosting room. SAveetbreads. Beef hearts. Tails. Beef hams. Shipping beef hams. Handling and formula for curing beef hams. Smoking test on regular beef hams- Shrinkage on smoked dried beef hams. Formulas for preservaline. Tripe. Tripe tests.

CHAPTER XII.

" String gang." Diagram showing arrangement for sheep killing with " string gang." Apparatus for hoisting sheep to sticking rail. Sheep dressing. Table of wages paid sheep butchers. Chilling sheep. Lamb tongues tests.

CHAPTER XIII.

Refrigeration of hogs. The hog slaughterhouse. LTnloading the hogs from cars. Construction of pens for hogs and sheep. Handling ,of live hogs. Penning of hogs. Shackling of hogs. Sticking of hogs. Scalding and scraping of hogs. Ham facing and gutting hogs. Leaf lard. Plan for hog slaughtering room, pens, etc. Hog killing room. Splitting hogs. Temperatures in chill room. Care in chill room. Section hog killing floor showing carrying rails, etc. Shrinkage in chill room. Tests on shrinkage of hogs in cooler. Cost of hog killing gang. Cost of hog cutting gang.

CHAPTER XIV.

Cutting floors. Diagram and sections showing detail of hog cutting room. Percentages of yield. Te^t showing yield of sides. Test showing yield of different cuts. Special test on lot of mixed hogs. Percentages of cuts on hams, shoidders, sides and miscellaneous. Mess pork. Clear back port. Brisket pork rib. Loin pork. Belly pork. Back pork. Loin clear pork. Dry salt meats.

CHAPTEE XV.

Curing of Hams and Dey Salt Meats 304-330

Cutting and trimming of hams. Pumping hams. Ham pump. Formula for pickle where hams have been piled in salt. Formula for pickle where hams have not been piled in salt. Curing hams. Formula for pumping pickle. Sirup curing. Cost of pickle. Using second hand pickle. California hams. Sweet pickle California hams and shoulders. Skinned hams. Table showing time for curing of hams to smoke. Boiled ham. Kules for boiling hams. Shrinkage in boiling hams from sweet pickle weight to shipping weight. Eolled boneless pork loins. Dry salt meats. Cost of curing dry salt meats. Curing of English meats. Curing of long cut hams. Color of English meats. Salting of meats. Piling of meats. Overhauling of meats. Shipping ages for English meats. Packing of English meats. Yields long cut hams and Cumbeilands.

CHAPTEE XYI.

Handling of meats for the smoke house. Soaking of meats for the smoke house. Handling of meats in the smoke house. Temperatures in a smoke house. Shrinkage in smoke house. Diagrams showing detail of double truck for smoke house rack. Coloring vat. Formula for coloring sweet pickle meats. Formula for coloring sweet pickle sides to avoid smoking. Paper for wrapping smoked meats. Canvasing meats. Whitewashing meats. Whitewash for meat canvas. Yellowwash for meat canvas. Smoking dried beef. Shrinkage on dried beef.

CHAPTEE XVII.

Preservative for sausage. Summer sausage, pork sausage and tongues. Packing fresh beef, pork hearts, etc. Curing and preserving pork and beef trimmings. Cured products used in making sausage. Sausage fillers. Smoke house arrangement for smoking domestic sausage. Inside water color for domestic sausage. Inside dry color for domestic sausage. Outside color for sausage casings. Varnish for bologna sausage casings. Pork, bologna, knoblaugh, leona, Polish, Frankfurt, blood, tongue and liver sausages. Formulas for making the different kinds of sausage. Boneless pigs feet. Head cheese. Minced ham. Cooked pressed ham. Tests on skinned shoulders for cooked pressed ham. New Jersey ham. Berlin ham. Boneless ham. Cottage ham. Stuffed hog heads. Scrapple. Bologna sausage in oil. Frankfurts in oil. Smoking schedule for sausage. Cooking schedule for sausage. Shrinkage of domestic sausage.

CHAPTEE XVIII.

Air drying and smoking. Preservative for dry sausage. Preparing cases for summer sausage. Dry room caution. Formulas for eervelat. Formulas for farmer sausage, Holsteiner sausage, Swedish medwurst, Braunschweiger, D'Arles, Italian salami, Milanese salami, German salami, Hungarian salami, Thuringer salami, Mortadella, Lyon and Gothair sausages. Lehigh Valley summer sausage.

CHAPTEE XIX. ^

Lard refining. Method of using fullers earth. Tank for mixing fullers earth and lard. Fullers earth kettle. Lard cooling cylinder. Compound lard. Deodorizing cotton seed oil. Deodorizing tank for cotton seed oil. Filter press for lard or oleo oil. Care of filter press. Kettle rendered lard. Weight of lard packages. Neutral iard. Tests on back fat converted to No. , 2 neutral kettle rendered lard and prime steam lard. Cold tests on grease.

CHAPTER XX.

BuTTERIiS^E AND PROCESS BuTTER 4-i2-468

Plans and sections of modern butterine factory. Handling of milk in making butterine. Cream ripening apparatus. Churns used in butterine factory. Milk and cream for butterine. " Starter " for butterine. Low ; grade butterine. Formulas for making butterine. Shrinkage and cost of butterine. Cost of equipment for butterine factory. Diagrams showing construction and arrangement of machinery for process butter factory. Milk and cream for process butter. Equiijment for making process butter.

CHAPTER XXI.

Beef extract. Making of beef extract from canning liquids. Extract from beef hearts. Formula for and machinery used in making beef fluid. Pigs feet. Machinery for splitting pigs feet. Tests showing cost in detail of pigs feet put up in different size packages. Pig tongues. Test showing cost of pig tongues put up in different sizes of packages. Formula for export pig tongue pickle. Pig snouts. Tests showing cost of pigs snouts put up in different sizes of packages. Hog hair and bristles. ,

CHAPTER XXII.

Composition of fertilizer. Plan and sections for construction and arrangement of fertilizer room. Tankage for fertilizer. Analysis of fertilizer. Tests showing value and yield from beef blood for fertilizer; ditto, hog blood for fertilizer; ditto, sheep blood for fertilizer. Production of albumen from beef blood. Settling pan for draining serum from blood. Details of home-made blood pump.

CHAPTEE XXIII.

Specifications for boxes for pork packing department, canning department, sausage department, lard refinery ; also boxes for beef cutting, offal and freezer. Fresh pork packing boxes. Dry salt and sweet pickle pork packing boxes. Cooperage specifications for different size barrels. Government specifications for packages. Eefrigerator boxes.

CHAPTER XXIV.

Convenient devices. Calking device. Elevator hoist. Barrel truck. Hog traveler. Hand cart. Tinning hooks. Thermometers. Thermometer scales. Wire or brine pipe covering. Tests to ■ determine value of paunch manure as fuel. Fattening chickens. Formula for making paint. Hectograph filler. Refrigerator cars. Icing refrigerator cars. Canning of meats. Glue. Chemical department. Kosher killing. Inspection by United States government. Branch houses.

CHAPTEE XXV.

The division of labor in large packing house plants on departmental basis. Method of assigning debits and credits to each department. Method of charging for raw material used in different departments. Method of crediting and debiting cost of labor in each department.

Chapter I. Construction Of Modern Packing Houses

IjSTTKODUCTORY.

Probably no industry in the United States has shown such rapid growth in so short a space of time as has the packing house business. The modern packing house as it exists today may be said to be less than thirty years old since its first inception, and one naturally inquires the causes which led to the growth of this industry to its present proportions in so short a time, ranking practically fifth in importance among the industries of the United States. The one main factor which has been instrumental in the consummation of this immense growth is " Concentration "^ — the watchword of the day in all large and successful industries.

Before the modern packing house was inaugurated the method in vogue was to either ship or drive the live stock to the point of consumption, where it was slaughtered and put on the market in a crude and expensive way, as compared with the methods of toda}^ In the general evolution of the business the first step toward making the modern packing house was the concentration of live stock at a few central market points where it was offered for sale. Prior to tliat time it would have been impossible for any one point to obtain sufficient stock to much more than supply its local demands.

In the earlier days of the live stock market buyers purchased their supplies where they could and shi^Dped them, alive, to the places where the animals were to be consumed. At this point Yankee ingenuity and energy interceded and devised the opposite plan, viz: that of shipping the live stock to a few central points and there changing it to dressed meats, which were then shipped to

FIG. 1.— LIVE STOCK GOING TO SCALE.

the various markets as required. The development of this plan inaugurated a new line of business now recognized as one of the most important of modern industries — central stock yards and packing house centers.

One of the first and at present the largest in the world, of these central live stock depots, is the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111., U. S. A., where also are located the largest slaughter houses. Views of these great yards are shown on pages 14, 15 and 16, preceding this chapter. Fig. 1 shows one of the places where live stock, as fast as purchased, is run over the scales and weighed, prior to delivery to the purchaser; Fig. 2, a view of the live stock pens and an alle^^way on a busy day; Fig. 3, a view of a pen containing choice yearling cattle and Fig. 4, one containing a bunch of choice Polled- Angus cattle.

FIG.

A BUSY ALLEY.

In the development of the modern packing house plant perhaps the first radical innovation, and, doubtless, essential requirement for success, was the adoption of the meat cooler or refrigerator and the modern system of mechanical refrigeration ; for this, and this alone, made it practicable to promptly chill the carcasses as soon as the animals were slaughtered and keep the meats in condition to stand exposure to higher temperatures without deterioration. It enabled the packer to keep up continuous, economical operation of his plant and yet sell his meats as the exigencies of the market might require. It enabled him also to furnish first-class meats at any and all times. Furthermore the operation of the refrigerating plant enabled him to freeze the lesser parts, such as livers, kidneys, hearts, etc., and thus, in the first

FIG. 3.— PEN CONTAINING CHOICE YEARLING CATTLE.

place, prevent losses through the rapid decomposition of these parts when exposed to high temperatures, and, in the second place, control the market for such product, preventing an over supply at one period and a scarcity at another.

The next step, and of almost equal importance, was the adoption and developing of the modern refrigerator car, by means of which the packer was enabled to ship his dressed beef to the point where it was to be consumed, and with this and with the improved facilities offered by the railways, the business of shipping fresh dressed beef to any portion of the country, was made possible.

When the pioneers of the business first broached the idea of killing cattle in Chicago and selling the dressed beef in Boston it was considered wholly impracticable and the people that started the business were looked upon as a '' little queer." There were many bitter experiences, before it was accomplished, in the way of losses;

FIG. 4.— PEN CONTAINING CHOICE POLLED-ANGUS CATTLE.

for shipping perishable articles so long a distance caused the loss of many thousands of dollars before the proper methods were discot^ered, but with the tenacity of the new beginner and the people who felt that they were on the right lines, these obstacles were soon overcome and today meats are delivered in eastern markets in a far better and a more healthful condition than they were ever offered to the public under the old methods.

Another feature that made the biisiuess possible was the fact that on the vast plains of the west innumerable cattle were being raised at a minimum cost, whereas in the thickly settled east, in the large manufacturing districts, was found a ready market for this beef. The i^acking business of this country would practically be impossible in older countries that are thickly settled, as the cost of raising live stock would be actually about the same in all parts and the cost of shipping from one point to another would only add to the original cost. In this country with the low cost of raising the animal on practically valueless land, except for grazing purposes, the eastern farmer with his high priced land was unable to compete, hence the practice of raising live stock in the west and consuming it in the east, and the concentration of live stock at the large markets, with the improved devices of today, made the business a possibility and the money and energy expended in adopting the best methods has caused its growth to its present magnitude.

Another very important feature in adding to the growth of this industry is the great saving effected by utilizing the by-products. When cattle were killed promiscuously throughout the country this was impossible, for a man killing a few cattle for some local point could not in any way save the by-products, consequently they were all lost. Neither could the small killer afford the necessary appliances with which to turn the material out economically and compete with one doing business on a modern scale, any more than the ancient cobbler sitting at his bench could afford the labor-saving machines and devices which we see in the modern shoe factories. Furthermore, the general health of the public has been served by having their meats delivered in a much better condition than thev could be at the time when the animal was killed and the meat consumed without having the animal heat thoroughly removed — a matter which is conceded by scientists as being deleterious to health. That the meat is delivered to the consumer in better condition than it was formerly is generally conceded by all, and the foreigners who visit this country are invariably impressed with the superior meats with which they are served at our hotels and restaurants.

As regards the by-products which are saved in the modern plants, the value of these products, which under the older methods were almost entirely lost, is enormous. The heads and feet, which were ordinarily thrown away, are today worked up into various products, all of which have a market value. The blood, tankage, etc., are all turned into commercial commodities, and the saving of these different parts creates a handsome profit in the business, a profit which has been entirely lost heretofore. Further details on this matter will be given in the chapters treating on the various by-products.

The next step in the development of the packing house business, and a step which was considered a few years ago as an impossibility, is the shipping of refrig^ erated beef to England. By the most careful and detailed attention, and the utilization of modern methods, it is possible to kill cattle or sheep in the i hottest months of the year in Kansas City, Omaha, or Chicago, ship the meats in refrigerator cars to the seaboard, where it is transferred into refrigerated rooms on the steamers and thence to England, the meat being sometimes four or five weeks en route from the abattoir where the animal is killed to the place where the meat finally reaches the consumer, and though the English authorities give it the most critical examination, it ihvariably passes. America furnishes the largest part of the meats consumed in that thickly populated country. It is true that for man}^ years we have supplied foreign markets with cured and canned meats, but the fresh meat trade in England is a business developed within a comparatively few years and has today grown to an immense magnitude. The reports of the Bureau of Statistics of the government of the United States show that for the fiscal year ending in June, 1904, there were exported from the United StatQs a total of 57,468,338 pounds of canned beef and 299,579,671 pounds of fresh beef. Of the latter 298,117,225 pounds were sent to the United Kingdom. Of the canned beef 45,155,744 pounds went to the United Kingdom. There were also exported in the same year a total of 76,924,174 pounds of tallow; 249,665,941 pounds of bacon; 194,948,864 pounds of ham; 9,479,312 pounds of canned pork; 18,633,820 pounds of fresh pork ; 112,225,176 pounds of salted or pickled pork ; 561,302,643 pounds of lard, and 52,605,545 pounds of lard compounds. The total value of the meat and meat products exported from this country in 1904 is given in the report of the Secretary of Agriculture as over $174,000,000, not including hides, glue, grease and scrap, of which over $5,000,000 worth was exported. The bulk of all these exports went to England.

Germany, France and other European countries could also be supplied in the same way, as they undoubtedly will at some future day when their tariffs are i'evised or reciprocity treaties are made so as to allow the importation.

SUGGESTIONS ON CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT.

This is so voluminous a proposition that it is rather difficult to cover thoroughly the many points which may come up, but the following may serve to give those contemplating building, or changing, some valuable information.

In the building or the starting of a packing house plant it is only within the last few years that this matter was studied from a practical standpoint so as to get the best results for the least expenditure in operating same. Formerly it was considered proper to build the killing house and coolers on the ground level, excavating for a cellar for the storage of some of the products ; the power house, tank rooms and other buildings for the disposition of by-products were put anywhere without reference to convenience or to economy in operation. Later experience has proven that it is economical to slaughter cattle on the upper floor of the building, and instead of spreading out on the ground and covering a large area, to build higher with a correspondingly smaller area, and utilizing the floors below for various purposes. With a proper incline cattle will make an elevation of 40 or 50 feet without detriment to condition, and it is much cheaper to walk the animals up to this elevation than it is to kilhthem on the ground floor and elevate the different products to their respective departments.

Gravitation is the cheapest force which we have at bur disposal, hence it is conceded to^ be the best way to have the cattle killed on tlje upper floor, and pass the carcass and the offal of the animals by gravity to a lower floor, where it is all treated and made ready for the respective departments. This floor should be on a level with the top of the tanks for the purpose of rendering the material ; also the other departments, such as the oleo, or the bone house for handling heads and feet, etc., should be, as nearly as possible, on this level, although it is always considered advisable to have them disconnected, as they are the departments in which is generally found the greatest liability of fire. Fig, 5 gives a cross section of one of the largest plants built on this idea, and the reader will note that the cattle are slaughtered on the upper floor, the offal being passed by gravity to the floor below, where it is worked up. Heads and feet are sent

FIG. 5.— CROSS SECTION THROUGH MODERN PLANT, SHOWING DEPARTMENTS.

from there to the bone house; all fats go directly to the oil house; on this floor casings are cleaned and packed ready for shipping; tripe is cleaned, ready to be sent to the curing cellars; livers, tongues, hearts, etc., are trimmed ready for the respective coolers. Thus it will be seen that all this material, which amounts to many tons per day, on an average killing, has found its way to places specially provided at a nominal cost for labor.

Floors below can be readily utilized for storage and the handling of the products, storage space in a packinghouse being something that is never found wasteful. From the killing floor the beef finds its way into the coolers, which in this particular case were double-decked, the beef necessarily^ being lowered when being sent to the lower cooler. Fig. 6 shows a cross section of a double-deck beef cooler.

FIG. 6.— CROSS SECTION DOUBLE DECK eSeEF COOLER.

Economy is the first consideration of building in this matter. The economy of operation is obvious to any practical packer and while this idea might not be ada]3table for a very small business it can be adopted to good advantage in many places where it is not in use today.

The next consideration is to have the buildings in which the by-products are to be handled situated conveniently and at the same time not connected directly so as to increase fire hazard. In constructions of this kind, insurance companies generally require seventy-five feet of space between buildings ; less than that means an additional cost of insurance on account of exposure. Even at this distance, however, they require iron doors on openings and either iron shutters or metal frames with wire glass windows on all wall openings.

However, comparatively little need be said on insurance conditions of a packing house, as these vary largely at different points and in the construction of a plant one must be governed very largely by the local requirements.

Another and very important consideration is the locating of the power house nearest to the building which uses the largest amount of steam. For instance, in packing house practice the tank house, bone house and oil house are the largest consumers of live steam, hence it is obvious that the power plant should be situated as near them as possible, with less regard for other buildings, such as killing floors, coolers, etc., using little or no steam.

Another point which is rarel}^ given the consideration it deserves, and in many cases it is impossible to improve it, is the track service. When goods are ready to load and large and expensive load gangs are on the pay-roll, delay in furnishing cars, switching, etc., is very expensive and in planning a plant this is a very vital point. How to secure the greatest economy in shipping out the products should be studied at all times, hence it is advisable to have as many tracks as possible entering the buildings and about the buildings : aiming to classify and load different products on different tracks, so that the shipment of one class of goods will not interfere with that of another. Where x>larLts are being remodeled, the facilities at hand are generally the best to be obtained, but where it is the intention to build anew this is a point that should be studied carefully; it is poor policy to do all the business on one or two tracks where it is possible to obtain more.