The teacher's manual of geography

Front matter

wmmmm

TEACHER'S MANUAL

OF

Part I. PAGE

I. Preliminary Oral Work 5

II. Out-of-Door Lessons for Primary and Intermediate Classes 10

III. The Use of Pictures and Models 22

IV. The Recitation in Intermediate and Advanced Work. . 31 V. Map-Drawing and Map-Making 41

VI. Hints on teaching Mathematical Geography 54

Part II

VII. Geodesy and Orography 79

VIII. Hydrography 99

IX. Meteorology 114

X. History in Geography 126

XL Political and Other Boundaries 141

Preface

The suggestions offered in the following Manual have been prompted by experience in the school-room, as well as by that of exploration and travel. They are intended as a supplement, and not as a substitute, for the ordinary work of the teacher. They will be of no avail whatever where the only aim in the study of geography is the preparation for examination. I have thought it unnecessary to present any graded course of study. The admirable work of Professor Frye, 'Child and Nature,' leaves in that direction nothing to be desired. Mr. Nicholl's 'Topics in Geography' will also be found a most useful companion.

In the second part of the Manual I have considered some of the traditions of geography, in the light of modern science. Some of the discussions have not previously been published ; and much of the material has been drawn from sources that to most educators are not readily available.

I am not of the opinion that the average teacher needs pedagogical regeneration; on the contrary, I believe that less energy devoted to improvement of methods, and a little more to the quality of the material taught, would not be amiss.

Acknowledgments are due to Miss E. M. Reed of the

Training School, Springfield, Mass., for many valuable hints in

the preparation of this work.

J. W. R.

PART I.

HINTS TO TEACHERS.

I. Preliminary Oral Work

It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the average child learns more of the science of geography in his rambles out of doors, before beginning the study in his school course, than he learns from the text-book after his school work in that study begins. The reason is that, in the one case he reads geography in nature, in the other from the printed page. No matter how well and how faithfully the teaching may be done, the disadvantages arising from the use of words and sentences instead of things in nature, are too great to be easily swept away. Within a few years the importance of this fact has been so widely recognized by primary teachers that, in a majority of schools, text-book work has been largely abandoned in primary grades, and oral lessons, aided by the moulding-board and the study of natural forms, have very properly taken its place.

The outline of the following course in oral primary geography was furnished at the author's request by Miss Mathilde E. Coffin, of the Millersville, Pa., State Normal School, as a basis for the preparation of this and the following chapter. It is intended as a list of topics for oral work rather than a systematic course of study. Much of the work discussed must necessarily be done out of doors. Children who like to make ' mud pies ' will take equal delight in modelling natural forms in sand or in clay. Time ordinarily spent in aimless rambling will be gladly devoted to the collection and study of natural objects when once there is an incentive for it. In ungraded country schools the wise plan of keeping primary pupils out of doors at all times when they are not engaged in recitation is an excellent one, and these are the golden hours which the child may devote to the study of nature. The out-of-door work should of course be supplemented by the necessary developmental exercises, and lessons in oral expression in the school-room. Bear in mind, also, that while recitation-hearing is an easy matter, teaching children how to study and how to observe is a qualification demanding the highest capabilities of the teacher.

Form. — It is well, so far as possible, to acquire a knowledge of form from natural objects. Fruit, crystals, forms of leaves, shells, animals, and geometric forms will all furnish instructive lessons. At first the work must be wholly imitative, but, as skill is acquired, objects may be modelled from memory. With the modelling of geometric forms comes the necessary instruction in the use of descriptive terms, such as plane, curved, level, cubic, spherical, square, circular, slanting, vertical, angle or corner, solid, horizontal, etc. Inculcate with every step ideas of neatness in work and faithfulness to the copy.

Size. — Teach by actual measurement all the units of linear measure within the comprehension of the pupil. The latter should be taught to estimate the inch, foot, and yard with the eye. It will be found rather more difficult to estimate vertical than horizontal distances, especially if the eyesight be at all astigmatic. It is well to have a pupil learn the length of his ordinary step, so that he can pace either a rod or one hundred feet with reasonable accuracy. It is not a difficult matter to estimate a distance of one mile, but the estimate would better be made by reckoning the time required to walk it, rather than by the number of steps. The average adult takes about two thousand steps to the mile. Three and one half miles per hour is a fair, four miles a brisk, and five miles per hour a very rapid gait. Time that is spent in estimating and measuring the dimensions of objects is by no means wasted. The ability to estimate measurements accurately has a practical value to which every person in active business life will testify. The estimation of angular distance is also an excellent drill. By subdividing an arc which measures a right angle, into halves and

PRELIMINARY ORAL WORK 7

thirds, almost any angle can be estimated to within two or three degrees.

Color. — The proper development of the color-sense is of no little importance to the student of nature. It is well, for many reasons, to make a special test of the color-sense of each pupil. About ten per cent of young children are deficient in color-vision. Of this proportion, some are deficient through physiological causes, others from a lack of development of the color-sense, and still others from ignorance of the names of colors. The two latter causes are remediable, and can be easily removed if the teacher will take a little extra pains with each individual pupil. Select at first, only bright, pronounced colors, and teach their names. Afterwards exercise every pupil in selecting graduated shades of each color. A pupil who is physiologically deficient in the color-sense will most likely fail in distinguishing the reds and greens. Use only well-known and standard names for the various shades and mixtures. Such names as 'ecru,' 'faded rose,' 'crushed strawberry,' etc., are whims of fancy only, and change with the fashions.

In teaching the primary colors it is best to use the classification which science has shown to be the true one, namely — red, green, and violet}

Viewing bits of colored silk through pieces of colored glass is in many respects a useful exercise, and will be of material service in the development of the color-sense.

But the colors and the color-names that the pupil must familiarize himself most thoroughly with are those that he finds in nature. There are the various shades of red, as damask, crimson, and scarlet \ the greens, as pistachio, apple-, and pea-green ; the blues, as indigo, sky-, ultramarine, and cobalt-blue. There are also the various shades of lilac, pink, pearl, violet, salmon, fawn, sable or

1 The old scheme of red, yellow, and blue holds true in mixing a few colors, but fails lamentably in the majority of cases. The trouble arises from the fact that nearly all the red, blue, and yellow pigments are mixed or impure colors.

seal-brown, chestnut-brown, russet-brown, iron-gray, silver-white, lemon-yellow, golden-yellow, orange-yellow, straw-yellow, tan, and a host of others, all named from objects in nature, and all standard types of color. In the light of geography these are more important than the bright spectrum colors which are so largely used in the arts. If there is any doubt that many of these colors are unfamiliar save in name, let the teacher direct half a dozen pupils to select a fawn or a pistachio shade from a collection of colors. Besides these there are the various l lustres,' such as vitreous, pearly, metallic, etc., all used in the description of minerals.

It may be objected that lessons on color belong to the domain of physics rather than to that of geography. This is possibly true, but we must also bear in mind that color is just as much a feature of nature as is the mountain, the plain, or the valley. Moreover, it is also a means of cultivating taste, and this of itself is quite as important a factor in child- culture as the study of geography.

Locality. — The sense of the knowledge of position and direction, which is practically the • homing instinct' of animals, is rarely developed to any great extent in mankind, and it therefore becomes a necessary part of education. Develop a knowledge of the terms right and left, and up and down. Impress the fact that these are terms relating respectively to the human body and the centre of the earth. There are various schemes for developing an idea of the position of the cardinal points, but it is well to begin at once with the direction of the north star. The direction of the sun's rising and setting will be worth incidental mention, but these should be discussed as varying and not fixed points. The direction of the shadow at noon is an excellent point to use for illustration, and the ingenious teacher can easily manufacture a sun-dial which will show the time between eight o'clock a.m. and four o'clock p.m. with reasonable accuracy. This will be found an excellent device for encouraging pupils to observe the apparent motions of the sun, both daily and yearly.

It is an excellent plan to have the points of the compass charted on a clear part of the school-room floor, or perhaps on the ceiling.

PRELIMINARY ORAL WORK 9

In studying the various problems under this head, the use of the map must necessarily be taken up. Begin with a map or diagram of the school-room or the school-grounds, and extend the area mapped until it includes every part of the district with which the pupil is familiar. The location of the principal surroundings should be represented approximately to a scale, and the conventional terms and signs used in chartography should be explained and used. It will be a matter of surprise to the teacher who tries the experiment, what excellent results can be obtained in these first attempts at map -drawing.

II. Out-of-door Lessons For Primary And Inter- Mediate Classes

The out-of-door lessons in geography, through which the child should receive his first knowledge of the forces of nature, will of necessity be confined mainly to the neighborhood in which he lives. The method in which these are conducted must depend on the judgment of the teacher as modified by surroundings. But one direction can be given : namely, make the most of what physiographical features the district affords. Supplement this by the moulding-board, and by the use of whatever pictures, models, etc., can be obtained.

Earth-Sculpture. — If the surface of the neighborhood is uneven, hilly, or rugged, the probabilities are that the unevenness has been produced by unequal weathering or else by the direct action of water. In many instances a hill is formed because its substance is harder than the rock surrounding it. So, under the action of flowing water, ice, rain, and other weathering agents, the surface is unequally worn into hills and valleys. Often there are strata of rock which show the corrasive action of running water; or perhaps soil, masses of broken rock, etc., have been carried down the slope, and spread over the valley below. By a careful search one may nearly always find marks of the forces which have thus sculptured the earth. In walking along the slope of the hill during a hard rain, one may observe the process of earth-sculpture in actual operation. The drops of rain that fall on the hill-side are clear as crystal. When they reach the bottom, however, they are loaded with fine particles taken from the soil.

Direct the pupils to observe this, and develop by skilful questioning the effect of the process when long continued.

Cover a piece of clay with sand on the moulding-table. Incline the latter slightly, and pour water on it from a sprinkler. The sand is washed away, leaving a miniature hill of clay, and the process of hill-making is thus repeated on a small scale. In a similar manner place a small piece of slate or a thin piece of rock on the sand, and apply the water. The sand is washed out under the edges a little way, but the slate protects the great mass of it, while all around the sand is carried away. In this manner one may show the formation of cliffs and certain types of tablelands.

The study of the hill will lead to that of the mountain- range. The explanation of this will be a more difficult task, because the essential feature of a mountain-range lies in the fact that it is a fold or wrinkle made by a shrinking of the earth. The following expedient has been used by the author for want of a better illustration. Take a piece of cloth-covered elastic band, ten or fifteen inches in length, and stretch it moderately. Fasten several strips of differently colored cloth to the elastic by means of mucilage, and when nearly dry, allow the elastic to slowly contract. The pieces of colored cloth will wrinkle and crumple, producing an effect which, though not a striking resemblance to mountainfolding, is nevertheless a good illustration of the manner in which plication occurred. In studying the mountain, begin with the range, as directed in p. 25.

The examples of earth-sculpture which will appeal most strongly to the child are those which are the work of running water. The little rain-formed rill which trickles along the road cuts a deep rut in one place, and spreads out in a broad channel in another. Finally it joins another rill, or else pours its current into a pool of water, which is a miniature lake or sea. When the rivulet reaches its goal, it possibly divides into several streams, forming a delta, and perhaps builds a bar opposite to its mouth.

In such a stream the pupil can see the operation of all the laws which govern the conduct of the Mississippi or the Colorado. Develop by skilful questions, inductive and deductive, why the rill cuts a deep canon in one place, and deposits silt in another ; building its banks and bed higher than the surrounding land, and then breaking through them. Show why it forms a delta, a bar, or a spit, when it reaches its outlet. The effects of rain combined with the corrasion of running water may also be pointed out. Develop the fact that a rapidly flowing stream in a rainless region will cut deep canons with almost vertical walls. If, on the contrary, the region is one of considerable rainfall, all the sharp, angular features will be worn and rounded in harmonious forms. This feature of erosion can be shown on the moulding-board, with the aid of a sprinkler.

It is well, also, to observe the effect of vegetation. The difference between the erosion of a grass-covered and a denuded slope is so marked that it will not fail to be observed and accounted for if the pupil's attention is called to it. Pictures of the mauvaise terre or ' bad-land ' formation, of the Grand Canon of the Colorado River, and of the rounded valleys of Oregon, can be made the subjects of impressive lessons. Develop the fact that vegetation is not only protective to the land, but that it also retards the collection of water in the channels which carry it off, thereby largely preventing ' freshets,' or floods. 1

Throw a ridge of sand or mud across the channel of a rill, and make a miniature lake. By and by the basin fills, and the water runs over the lowest part of the rim. Now let the pupils observe carefully what occurs. At the inlet of the lake the current of the stream is checked, and the water begins to deposit silt, forming a little bar at the mouth. The stream issuing from the lake is likewise at work : it is cutting away the rim of the basin and lowering the level of the water. From these facts two good lessons may

1 In Arizona and Nevada I have more than once seen a flood gather in a dry ' wash ' or creek-bed so quickly, after a heavy rain, that the water rolled down the canon almost like a solid wall. In two minutes a dry creek-bed would become an impetuous torrent. — The Author.

be deduced. First, that the stream flowing into a lake is always silting the basin. Secondly, the stream which flows from a lake is constantly cutting the rim of the basin lower, reducing its size, and draining the water away. These are the laws which prompted Gilbert to say, ' Rivers are the mortal enemies of lakes.'

When excursions can be made to the seacoast, impressive truths may be learned from the action of the waves. The water-worn cliffs show what can be accomplished by the continuous beating of the waves upon hard rock. The sand, examined by a magnifying glass, will show the effect of the never-ceasing surf. If one may have the fortune to visit the coast of the South Atlantic States, the long, narrow sand-spits formed by the combined action of rivers and waves, — one of which pushes the silt sea- ward, and the other land-ward, — may be made the subject of a most instructive lesson.

The different outlines of coast must not be forgotten. These will be found at the shore of almost any pond or stream of water. Indeed, the various types of coast outline may be profitably moulded at the shore if they do not occur there. Occasionally it will be necessary to obtain pictures or models of the different types, and reproduce the forms from these. Do not neglect to show that peninsulas are, in most instances, ranges of mountains extending into the sea, and that frequently a chain of islands, the partly covered summits of the range, lie beyond the point of the peninsula.

Do not neglect to instruct pupils in the application of technical names that pertain to a natural feature, and do not extemporize names where good ones already exist. The abuse of this privilege has already led to much unnecessary confusion.

Slopes. — The slopes of a body of land are commonly formed by mountain systems, but in many instances a low and almost imperceptible ridge of land separates two basins or watersheds. Steep or abrupt slopes can always be determined by the eye, and the positive slopes of the district should be invariably studied when the pupil is learning his first lessons in physical geography.

The gentle slopes of land, however, can be estimated naturally in only one way ; namely, by observing the direction of the watercourses. So helpless is the eye in this respect that the most expert surveyors and topographers are often deceived. The slopes and hydrographic basins of large areas of land may be conveniently studied from both map and moulding-board. In using the map for this purpose, the boundaries of the various basins and slopes are found by drawing a light pencil-line so as to separate the sources of adjacent rivers and tributaries. In doing this the pupil will often discover the untruth of one of the oldest traditions of geography ; namely, that the crests of mountain-ranges correspond with divides. A few moments' work with the pencil will show that the exception is true oftener than the rule.

Soil. — A knowledge of the various kinds of soil is not only a necessary part of the study of physical geography, but it has a practical value in education that will not be overestimated. The varieties of greatest practical use are sand, gravel, clay, and loam. Develop by observation and questioning that sand and gravel are results of running of water, and lead the pupil to discover how rough fragments of rock are converted into rounded pebbles. Do not make the mistake of teaching that the soil of deserts is composed of sand ; for it is very rarely that sand is found in desert regions. Pure sand is composed of the mineral silica, and is a product of the seashore. The so-called sand of the desert may be composed of almost any kind of dry, pulverized earth.

Develop the idea that the loams are nearly always disintegrated or ' rotten ' rock, finely pulverized, and mixed with decayed vegetable matter. In many instances loam has been deposited by rivers, but sometimes it has been found in situ. In the former case it is called alluvial, in the latter, sede?ilary soil. The formation of loam will be somewhat difficult of explanation, but it is not beyond the understanding of even the younger pupils. The action of the angle-, or earth-worm, which is constantly mixing and digesting rich, loamy soils within its alimentary canal, will make the subject of an excellent lesson.

In studying the properties of clay, it will be well to call attention to its imperviousness to water, and its extreme hardness when dry. Illustrate its commercial value in the manufacture of brick, pottery, etc., and its special value in holding near the surface of the earth much of the water that falls in the form of rain and snow.

Vegetation. — The first lessons on vegetable life should be of a very practical kind. The study of the germination of seeds, although hardly within the domain of geography, is an excellent exercise because it is an incentive to habits of observation. The flower-garden may be made almost as useful as the blackboard. There is no reason why the effects of heat and moisture on soil should not be as closely studied in the country school as in the higher school of learning. Almost every law which underlies the geographical distribution of plants may be illustrated in the school district.

Besides the grains, the fruits, and the vegetables of commercial value, it will be well to study the large class of plants ordinarily classed as ' weeds.' Nearly all of these have more or less value to mankind, or else they are positively baneful. A knowledge of the latter is just as important as that of the former ; more especially is it necessary to learn how the seeds of the latter are distributed. The ' down ' of the Canada thistle and the dandelion, and the winged seeds of the maple may be used to illustrate this.

It is a good plan to encourage pupils to collect and prepare a herbarium for the use of the school, arranging and classifying the plants of the neighborhood more with reference to their commercial and economic value than with respect to their botanical places. Specimens of all the timber growing in the district may be profitably collected and preserved ; one side of the specimen being left in its natural state, the other planed, and dressed with oil.

Animals. — The study of animal life is also an important factor in the legitimate work of geography. In many instances the study may be made observational. The habits and characteristics of domestic animals will furnish a fund of useful information. It will be well also to discriminate between wild animals that are useful and those that are hurtful to the husbandman. The study of the birds and insects with which the pupil is familiar will be one of great utility. If the pupils are encouraged to make a classified list of all the forms of animal life found in the district, the extent of the list will be a matter of surprise. When the list is discussed in detail, it will probably lead to the discovery that, in general, insects have the various forms of grub, chrysalis, and articulate stage.

Much may be done by reading stories about wild animals ; in every case supplementing the story by pictures. The latter may be obtained in colors for a very small sum of money. Perhaps more can be done in the way of developmental work by skilful questioning than by observation and reading. The value of the list of questions given in Frye's ' Child and Nature,' pp. 112 and 113, will be manifest to every live teacher.

Minerals. — There are few districts which do not abound in mineral wealth. In the prairie states the list will be found to be surprisingly large, while in the rolling and mountainous regions the list may easily be extended beyond the limit of utility. The most important are, of course, the minerals of economic use. It will be well to have a collection of from fifty to one hundred of these, which should be labelled and mounted either on a block or a piece of stout card. It should comprise, among others, specimens of the different varieties of coal arranged in a series ; several varieties of iron ore, notably hematite, limonite, magnetite, lodestone, and pyrites. Copper, zinc, nickel, lead, quicksilver, and tin ores may be obtained without much difficulty, and in every case the metal yielded by the ore should be exhibited. Native specimens of rock-salt, sulphur, gypsum, and the ochres may be obtained at a trifling expense. Equally important are the building stones, such as granite (syenite and gneiss), brown sandstone, white sandstone, marble, and other limestones, slate, clay, etc. It is best to have the pupils themselves collect or obtain the specimens. They should be labelled and mounted in as attractive a manner as possible.

The Atmosphere. — It is well to impress the fact that the atmosphere is just as much a part of the earth as the water or the solid rock. Do not allow the notion to be developed that all space is filled with air, and do not convey the idea that the earth 'floats in air.' Emphasize the fact that the air is the outer part of the earth, and moves with it in space.

That air has weight is always more or less difficult to demonstrate to a class, not because it may not be shown by simple experiments, but from the very common opinion that there is a force generally known as ' suction.' The boy's toy called the ' sucker,' a piece of thick, pliable leather, with a string fastened to the centre, is instructive as a means of illustration. When the sucker is saturated with water, and pushed firmly against a smooth board or a polished boulder, it requires considerable force to pull it away. The most convincing proof of the weight of air, however, may be found in the fact that a two-gallon glass jar, when exhausted by means of the air-pump, loses about half an ounce in weight.

It will be well, also, to develop the fact that the column of mercury in the barometer exactly balances or weighs a column of air of equal area. A serviceable barometer may be easily constructed by inverting a tube about thirty-six inches long, filled with quicksilver, so that the open end rests in a small vessel half full of the same metal. Measure the height of the quicksilver in the tube, and fasten upon it a paper scale of inches and tenths so as to mark the height of the column. The instrument thus constructed will show the changes in the pressure (weight) of the atmosphere with reasonable accuracy.

Show by any of the well-known experiments that air when heated expands in volume, therefore becoming, bulk for bulk, lighter than cold air. The boy's whirligig held over a hot stove at once acquires a rapid motion because of the ascending current of warm air. Do not allow the impression to obtain that hot air ' rises ' because of its lightness. What really occurs is, that heavier cold air flows in and pushes it upwards.

IS HINTS TO TEACHERS

The mutual but adverse motions of cold and warm currents of air may be best shown by the time-worn experiment of holding two lighted candles, one at the top, the other at the bottom of a door which opens into a heated room. In the study of the winds, it is not easy to find an illustration of wider application than this. It is an excellent plan to have pupils observe daily the motions of the winds, especially the direction of the wind which precedes storms and that with which the storm clears.

The moisture in the atmosphere may be shown in different ways. The ' drying up ' of pools of water after a rain, the evaporation of water in an open vessel exposed to the air, and the disappearance of the dew after sunrise, may be made the subjects of extremely entertaining lessons. That moisture is present in the dry air of a room may be shown by filling a pitcher or other vessel with iced water. As the atmospheric moisture is condensed on the outside of the vessel, wipe the latter, and allow it to condense again, as a further proof. Lead, step by step, to the fact that when the temperature is lowered quickly, much of the vapor of water is changed to its ordinary liquid form, and appears as dew, mist, fog, cloud, or rain.