Teacher's hand book: designed to accompany Yaggy's Geographical study ...

Front matter

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TO ACCOMPANY

Proe HenryH.Rassweiuer,

Part I

A. Course of Object Lessons and Elementary Oral Instruction in (jeograpliy, for Young Pupils.

EXERCISE I.

(on title plat'k of study.)

FORM, MOTIONS AND SIZE OF THE EARTH.

T. — What do yoii see in this picture before you? (Pupils will give a variety of answ^ers, such as "stars," "the moon," "a big ball" or " round ball," and some may have sufficiently developed ideas to call this " big ball " the Earth. Now associate in their minds these ideas of ttatne and form.) This large, round body represents the Harth on which we live. What is its name?

P.— The Earth.

T.— What is the Earth?

P. — The large body on which we live.

T. — Harry, what is the shape of the Earth?

H. — It is roimd like a ball or an orange.

T. — Yes; it is more like an orange than like a perfectly round ball. You know an orange is a little bit flattened on its two ends. The earth is also a very little flattened on its opposite ends or sides. So we say the earth is a large globe or ball very nearly round. (Let each one of your pupils mention some round body. Fix in this way the idea of the earth's form.)

T. — As we move about on the earth or look out upon it, it seems to stand still. But really it is alwavs moving in two ways. Once a day, that is, once in 24 hours, it turns round like this. (Illustrate with some spherical object.) Once in a year, or in about 36=51^ days, it goes around the Sun. (Illustrate this by passing a ball slowly around some central object.) When we ride in a carriage, or on a railroad train, we can feel the carriage or the car move. But the motion of the Earth both in turning round, and in going around the Sun, is so fast and so steady, that we cannot in any way feel or perceive it. Now this picture shows the Earth, as it flies in its path among the stars, around the Sun. Does there seem to be anything to hold it up?

P.— No.

T. — No ; it rests on nothing, but moves on from day to day, and from year to year, in the same great path in space. What keeps it in its path you will learn and imderstand when you are older. In how many ways does the Earth move ?

P.— Two.

T. — Charles, will you take this ball and show me one way in which it moves? (A croquet ball will be convenient.) Edward, will you show us the other way ? Now, class, in what time does the Earth turn once around?

P. — In one day.

T. — In what time does it go once around the Sun ?

P. — In about 3651^ days, or a year.

T. — Then, Harry, how many times does the earth turn around (this way) in a year ?

H. — About 3651^ times.

T. — Does the earth as you look upon it appear to be round like this ball on this chart?

P. — No; it does not.

T. — That is because we can see only a very small portion of it at a time. [Now draw out from the individual members of your class as nearly as possible, the extent of their travel over the surface of the Earth. This will intensely interest them, and bring out a variety of extent of their youthful whereabouts. Develop at this point, some idea of distance, say of a mile. Refer, if possible, to points in various directions, one mile distant from your school house. Then referring descriptively to the Study, drill into their memory, in round numbers, the Earth's dimensions, as about S,ooo miles through its center, (diameter), and about 25,000 miles around it, (circumference.) Re-driil thoroughly on every point developed in this lesson.]

EXERCISE II.

(on title plate of study)

DIRECTION, CIRCLES AND ZONES.

T. — How many know in which direction the sun rises in the morning? (Hands up.) All stand and point with your right- hand in that direction. Point with your left hand in the direction where the sun sets in the evening. Now your face is toward the North, your back to the South, your right hand toward the East, and your left hand toward the West. Now drop your hands. All point North, East, South, West. AW face North, East, South, West. Ellen* in what direction is your home from our school house? Yours, Robert? (Thoroughly drill in a knowledge of these four cardinal directions.) A line passing through the center of the earth, from one side to another, is called a Diameter. What is a diameter? (Persevere in getting back, or drawing out, a correct definition.) The earth has many such diameters. But that diameter or line through the earth on which it turns every day is called the Axis of the earth. The two ends of this axis are called the Poles. (Refer to chart.) Now what do you suppose we call this one toward the north?

P.— The North Pole.

T. — Right.' And the opposite one?

P.— The South Pole.

T. — Now this great circle passing around the earth midway between the poles (trace it on figure) is the Equator. Here, at some distance on the north side of the equator this circle (trace it) which is called the Tropic of Cancer, passes around the earth. Here, at the same distance south of the equator, (trace it) is the Tropic of Capricorn. That part of the earth's surface which lies between these two circles is called the Torrid Zone, because it is the hottest part of the earth. This circle, at the same distance from the north pole, (trace it) is the Arctic Circle. Between this circle and this pole lies the North Frigid Zone. Here is the Antarctic Circle. Between this and the south pole lies the South Frigid Zone. These zones are called frigid because they are the coldest parts of the earth. Between this Tropic of Cancer and this Arctic Circle lies the North Temperate Zone. Between this Tropic of Capricorn and this Antarctic Circle lies the South Temperate Zone. These temperate zones are neither as hot as the torrid nor as cold as the frigid zones. (Redrill thoroughly on all the names and pionts learned in this lesson.)

Note. — A review of " Direcitons, Circles and Zones," with the subject of Latitude and Longitude, will be presented as an exercise introduetory to Map Study.

EXERCISE III.

(on chart of planetary system.)

THE EARTH'S PLACE IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

(review first alt. the points taught in previous lesson.)

T. — Now let us learn something about the place of our earth among the stars. Here is a beautiful map vv^hich shows the heavens as they appear to us at night. Many of these stars which you see represented here, are. many thousand times larger than our earth. They appear so small because they are so far away. This large body represents the Sun. This, with all the bodies that revolve around it, is called the Solar System. These bodies which move around the sun as a center, we call Planets. They have no light and give out no light of their own. They get their light from the sun. Notice that some of them are much farther from the sun than others. Let us learn their names, (Point precisely to the objects referred to.) What body is that at the center?

P.— The Sun.

T. — Then nearest to the sun is — ?

P. — Mercury.

T. — Next to Mercury comes — ?

P, — Venus.

T. — Then the third in order is — ?

P.— The Earth.

T. — Then comes — ?

P.— Mars.

T. — Then beyond Mars — ?

P. — Jupiter.

T.— Then— ?

P. — Saturn.

T. — Next to Saturn—?

P. — Uranus.

T. — Then the farthest out — ?

P. — Neptune.

T. — Now, Nellie, which of these phinets is shown to be the largest ?

N. — Jupiter.

T. — That is right. Jupiter is over a thousand times as large as our Earth. Hattie, which of them is shown to be the smallest?

H. — Mercury.

T. — Correct. George, how many of these planets are shown to revolve around our sun ?

G.— Eight.

[Now drill into their memory, while constantly referring to the figure, the names and order of distance of these planets in the following order: Sun at the center, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Then do the same as to the comparative size, in this order: Beginning with the largest. Jupiter, Saturn* Neptune, Uranus, Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury. Then, removing the map, drill from memory on these points, being sure to conclude the exercise with a clear view in each pupil's mind of the Earth's place and rank in the Solar System.]

EXERCISE IV.

(astronomical chart.)

THE CAUSE OF DAY AND NIGHT.

(review drill on solar system.)

T. — What did we learn to be the shape of the Earth?

P. — It is round like a ball.

T. — From what body does the Earth get its light?

P. — From the Sun.

T. — Now, Mary, if I should hold up this ball, (croquet ball) at some distance from a light, on how much of it would the light fall ?

P. — On only one-half of it.

T, — Right. Well, Carrie, if the Earth is a round body, and the Sun shines on it, how much of it will be in the light?

P.— Half of it.

T. — What will then be on the other side?

P. — Darkness.

T. That is correct. In the half that is turned toward the Sun it is Day. In the part which is turned away from the Sun it is Night. Now, Frank, can you tell me how it would be if the Earth stood perfectly still and did not turn on its axis?

P. — Half of the Earth would always have day, and the other half would always have night.

T. — That is very correct. But we have learned that the earth has how many motions?

P._Two.

T. — What motions are these?

P. — One on its own axis, and one round the Sun.

ft '

T. — Now on account of the Earth's turning steadily about its axis, every place on its surface has its tvirn in coming into the light, and going out of it — that is, in having morning and evening, or day and night. Now let us see how nicely this diagram will show this to us. (Refer to " Movable Diagram " on lower left hand corner of astronomical chart under figure of Zodiacal Light.) What does this represent ?

p._The Earth.

T. — And this at a distance from it?

P.— The Sun.

T. — What do you notice in the appearance of the sui'face of the Earth?

P. — Half of it is light, and half of it is dark.

T. — Which side is light?

P. — The side towards the Sun.

T. — Why is this side dark?

P. — Because it is turned away from the Sun.

T. — Now if the Earth had no motion, this part would always be in the light, and this always in the dark; that is, there would be no change from what to what ?

P. — From day to night.

T. — But now let me sbiow you what the Earth really does. (Turn the Earth figure by means of the little finger-catches at the bottom.) It moves in this way. Let me turn it once around. In ■what time does the Earth make such a turn?

P. — In twenty-four hours, or one day.

T. — Yes; and we call this its daily revolution. (Now call the attention of your pupils to some particular place on the Earth figure. Bring it up from below on the right, opposite the word " morning.") Now you see this place just coming out of darkness into the light. So this must be what to this place ?

P. — Morning.

T. — So it is. These lines which you see passing around the Earth from pole to pole — that is, from north to south, are called Meridians. (Dwell on this till the meridian is understood.) Now you see when the Earth has turned farther a quarter way round, the meridian which passes through this place, has got right under the Sun. What time of day must this be?

p._Noon.

(Continue this through to " evening " and " midnight.") Notice that when this place is at midnight, this place on the opposite meridian is at noon. (Make this drill still more interesting by locating as nearly as possible, _yo«r own place on the Earth, and passing it through a full revolution. Persevere until the subject of this exercise is thoroughly mastered.)

EXERCISE V.

(astronomical chart.)

THE CHANGE OF SEASONS.

(Refer to " Movable Diagram " on right lower corner of Astronomical Chart under figure of " Meteoric Shower." Trace carefully on the Earth, its axis, the Equator, the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. Review the names, limits, and the general climate distinction of the Zones. Let this be preparatory to the new lesson.)

T. — As the Earth revolves around the Sun in the course of the year, any place on its surface is turned more or less directly towards the Sun at different times. That is, at some time in the year each part of the surface leans away from the Sun more than at other times, so that the Sun's rays strike such a place more or less slantingly. Now as the Earth turns on its axis day by day, the more nearly over head the Sun is at noon, the more direct and powerful its rays will fall upon us, and the warmer it will be. It is in this way that we have the different Seasons of the year. How many of you can tell how many Seasons there are? (Hands up.) Alice, will you name them?

A. — Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter.

T. — Now we will make this pretty chart help us to understand how the Seasons come and go. (Move the sun-slide so that the Sun win be directly over the Equator.) Now, class, what is this line called ?

P. — The axis of the Earth.

T. — And these points at the end of the axis?

P.— The Poles.

T. — And this line passing around the Earth midway between the poles?

P. — The Equator.

T. — Now this represents the time of the year when the Sun shines directly upon the Equator. Now when the Earth revolves on its axis as we saw it in yesterday's lesson, (reproduce a rotation of the Earth on the " Day and Night " diagram,) the Sun at noon will be overhead to all places where ?

P.— On the Equator.

T. — Notice now that the Sun shines from pole to pole. Now when this is so, the day is just as long as the night, and the night just as long as the clay in every single spot on the Earth's surface. This is the case on or about the 2ist of March, the time of the beginning of Spring. Now let us see why we call this Spring. We live about here. (Locate as nearly as you can with delicate pointer on Earth-map.) All this part of the Earth which lies on this side of the Equator, towards the North Pole, is called the Northern Hemisphere. This other side towards the South Pole is called the Southern Hemisphere. Hemisphere means half a sphere, or half of a round body like the Earth. (Turn the Sun figure slowly upward.) Now, notice, this shows how, after the 21st of March the Sun shines more directly from day to day, on places farther from the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere. This is the Spring season in this Hemisphere. The time when the little blades of grass and the wild flowers spring up out of the Earth. This continues until June 21st. ^ At this time the Sun has moved to its farthest point northward from the Equator, and shines directly on the Tropic of Cancer. This is the beginning of Summer. It is now warmer in the Northern Hemisphere, because the Sun's rays fall on it more directly than they did when the Sun was over the Equator on the 21st of March. Notice now that it must be colder in the Southern Hemisphere than before, because, as you see, the Sun's rays fall on it much more slantingly; so while it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere. You see also that the Sun shines to a distance beyond the North Pole, and, on the other hand, does not shine to the South Pole within the same distance. This circle which is at this distance from the North Pole is the Arctic Circle. On the other side, this circle which bounds the distance to which the Sun now shines in the Southern Hemisphere, is the Antarctic Circle. Then, after the 2ist of Jmic, the Sun moves again, from day to day, nearer to the Equator, like this. (Move Sun slowly down.) On the 21st of September, it is again directly over the Equator — shines from pole to pole. Day and night are again equal. The Sun's effect on the Northern Hemisphere is growing less. In the Southern Hemisphere it is getting warmer. It is, with us, the beginning of Autumn.

Still the Sun moves farther south. Notice how much more slantingly its rays must fall upon our Hemisphere. On the 21st of December it has reached here — its farthest point south. It shines directly on the Tropic of Capricorn. In the north its light does not reach the pole, but only to the Arctic Circle. In the south its rays fall beyond the pole, as far as the Antarctic Circle. This is the beginning of W^inter. It is the 21st of December. Then the Sun moves north again, like this, until the 21st of March, when it shines directly on the Equator as it did when we started.

During these changes which I have shown you the Earth has moved once around the Sun, the four seasons have come and gone, and a year has passed.

EXERCISE VI.