The crack shot; or, Young rifleman's complete guide: being a treatise on the use of the rifle, with rudimentary and finishing lessons; including a full description of the latest improved breech-loading weapons, rules and regulations for target practice; directions for hunting game found in the United States and British province, etc., etc

Front matter

Qass Book.

TO THE EEADER

~T HAVE been induced to prepare the following pages from a conviction that a work of this kind was needed. No work has been published since the recent great improvements in breech-loading arms; and moreover, though the books of Cleveland, Chapman, Wilcox, and others are standard works, containing a vast deal of useful and valuable information, yet it has been felt that they are too purely scientific to meet the desired end. At the suggestion of a sporting friend of " credit and renown," I undertook the preparation of a work designed to aid and instruct " the young idea how to shoot." I have acquitted myself to the best of my humble ability, and trust that it may prove useful and interesting to those for whose use it was specially prepared — the young liflemen of America. I do not claim any great originality, nor do I profess to have propounded any peculiar theories ; my object being to compile, in brief and readable style, the views and opinions of those who, from time to time, have written upon this subject. I must acknowledge my indebtedness to the authors above mentioned; to Col. Boucher, Capt. Hans Busk, whose works should have a more

Introduction

Fraiik Forrester on shooting. Effect of his writings. Efforts made from the earliest ages to obtain a destructive weapon. The crossbow or arc-a-buse. Introduction of gunpowder. Rude attempts at firearms. Muskets first supplied to the British troops iji 1596. Their unpopularity. What I propose to do, and how pp. 1-14

Chapter I. The Geneeal Principles Of Firing And Motion Of Projectiles

i ^one^al principles. The line of fire or projection. The trajectory. The line of metal or aim. Inertia. Velocity. Friction. Gravity. Resistance. Various ideas as to the motion of projectiles. Robins first demonstrated the truth in 1742. Windage. Rotation. Object of rifling. Bullets. Centre of gravity. Captain Tamissier's experiments. Sir William Armstrong's views. Major O wren's. Effect of the atmosphere. Better results obtained from elongated than from spherical shot pp. 15-41.

CHAPTER n.

ON RIFLES AND RIFLING.

The old musket. Great windage. Loss of power in consequence. Difficulty of casting a perfectly solid bullet. How this has been obviated. Rifling first devised by Zoller. Robins' s researches; his conviction of the great importance of rifling. Rotation obtained by rifling. Early attempts. The spiral devised by Koster. Different systems of rifling. The grooved cylinder. The elliptical or oval bore. The polygonal system. Efforts to decrease windage. Whitworth's experiments. Trial of the rifle invented by him. Report of the board. Great cost of his experiments. Varieties of grooving. The "twist"' in grooving. The uniform, gaining, and decreasing. Strong advocacy of each. Varieties found in artillery museum at Paris. Earliest rifle known. Baker's rifle. The Brunswick rifle and belted bullet. The system Delvigne. System Thouvenin. The ^Minic bullet. Gen. Jacob's opinion of it. His proposed bullet pp. 42-69.

Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER ni.

THE RIFLE IN ALL ITS VARIOUS FORMS.

Wesson's improved American rifle, highly approved of by Chapman. Tlic target rifle. My idea of wliat a rifle should be. Gordon Camming' s rifli'. Variations in bullets. Good shooting by Sheppard. Advocacy of " off-hand" shooting. Seth Green. Pattern of fancy shooting by Billinghurst. Telescopes. Good rifle-makers among the Canadians pp. 70-71.

CHAPTER IV.

BREECH-LOADERS.

The muzzle-loader fast being superseded by the breech-loader. Lesson learned from the needle-gun. Early invention of breech-loaders. Robins. Colt's revolver. Hans Busk's opinion of that rifle. Description of it. Sharp's rifle. Wonderful results achieved by it. The Maynard Rifle. Stabler's high opinion of it. Favorite sporting gun. Merrill's rifle. Burnside rifle. The Spencer repeater. Manner of operating it. How it has stoo:l the test of rough usage in warfare. High opinion entertained of it by our generals. Report of Board of Ordnance pronouncing it the best magazine arm. The Ballard. Its simplicity. How to work it. High testimonial from New Mexico. The Peabody rifle. Its strength and simplicity. Recommendation of it as a national arm by the Springfield Board of Officers. Adoption of it by the Canadian Government. Favorable report by Danish Government Commissioners. Colonel Berdan's breech*loader. The Remington. Rapidity of fire. Objections to it. How these have been overcome. Its adoption by Austria, Denmark, &c., &c. Wesson's breech-loader ; its popularity, performances, &c. Cochran's breech-loader. Poultney breech-loader. The National breech-loader. The Laidley carbine. The Henry repeater ; delicacy of its mechanism ; unsatisfactory performance at Washington ; Cleveland's opinion of it ; my own experience. Winchester repeater. Ball's repeater. The Empire Congress. The Hubbell. The Meigs. Report of New York State Board of Officers.

FOREIGN RIFLES.

AVhitworth's rifle; enormous cost of his experiments; description of the bullet ; high price of the gun ; the Rigby pronounced superior. General Jacob's rifle. Nuthall & Boilleau's rifle, &c., &c.

EUROPEAN BREECH-LOADERS.

The needle-gun; its awkward appearance; want of simplicity; its effectiveness at Sadowa. The Chassepot; anxiety of France to obtain a breech-loading fire-arm ; advantages of Chassepot over the needle-gun. The Snider-Enfield ; description of the Enfield ; explanation of the method of conversion; the cartridge; unfavorable reports of the first results; refu' tatioQ of them ; wonderful performances at Wimbledon. Prince and Lind'

TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX

ners breech-loader. The Cornish. The Carle. The Werndl. Prince's. Terry's. Westley Richard's breech-loader; accuracy of shooting; its easy conversion to a muzzle-loader. The breechless gun. Booth's breech-loader. Pape's Champion breech-loader; its simplicity and strength. Comparison of the merits of the various breech-loaders and repeaters. Report of the Board that sat in Washington in 1860 pp. 72-241.

CHAPTER V.

THE RIFLE AND HOW TO CHOOSE IT.

Difficulty generally experienced in selecting a rifle. Consideration whether for target practice or for hunting. Condemnation of rest firing. Peck's opinion. Practice made from a rest. Telescopes. Lieut. Godfrey's feat. The '* twist*' again. A good kind of rifle. Frank Forrester's choice. What Seth Green shoots with. A capital rifle. Gordon Cumming's rifle. Breech-loaders must ere long entirely supersede the muzzle-loader. The best kind. A few closing hints as to the care of the rifle pp. 242-257.

CHAPTER VI.

THE RIFLE AND HOW TO USE IT.

Sights. Elevation. Estimating distances. How to cast bullets. Peck''s patent bullet Powder ; its early history. The best in use. Recommendation of Smith and Rand's orange powder. Probability of gun-cotton being brought into use pp. 258-26&

CHAPTER VII.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING.

The beginner goes out for practice. Implements used in loading. Great care must be used in selecting a practice ground. Danger of bullets glancing. The kind of target to use. Loading. The greatest nicety to be observed in all the operations. Position. The British. The Swiss. The American. Preference for the Hythe. How to aim. Do not dwell. Pull of the trigger. Rifle must be kept clean. Effects of wind, sun, &c. Allowance to be made. Use of wind guages deprecated. Influence of the atmosphere. Captain Heaton's rules. Rest firing. Advantage of practicing judging distances. Use of the stadium. System pursued at Hythe. In-door practice. Urgent necessity for our youth to perfect themselves in the use of arms pp. 267-285.

CHAPTER Vin.

THE BISON.

His vast size. Natural history of. Immense numbers. Time of hunting. Manner of hunting on the plains. Kind of horse to be used. Equipments and rig pp. 286-294.

X TABLEOF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IX.

THE MOOSE.

His habitat. Natural history. Time for hunting. Various methods employed. Calling. Stalking. Hunting in winter on snow-shoes. Great physical exertion necessary for the latter method. Choice parts. Breech-loader almost indispensable pp. 295-305.

CHAPTER X.

THE CAEIEOU.

Its habitat. Natural history. Method of hunting. Its -wariness. Circumspection necessary in pursuit, &c., &c pp. 80G-310.

CHAPTER XI.

DEEK.

Natural history of. Various modes of hunting. "Watching; shining; still hunting ; driving. Pointers used before. I disagree with Major King. Description of a hunt, the coinj de grace. Frank Forrester's advice to young sportsmen pp. 811-320.

CHAPTER XII.

THE HOUND.

Varieties of hounds used in hunting. The Talbot. Description of a hound. Points to be considered when choosing one ; Somerville's description of a perfect hound. Beckford. Frank Forrester. Rules for breeding. Blaine's maxim pp. 321-326.

CHAPTER XIII.

TURKEY SHOOTING.

Noble appearance. Habitat. Size when in season. How to get at him. Rifle to be used, &c. Impossibility of laying down rules for hunting. Wood-craft cannot be taught by precept. A few general rules necessary to be observed. Ennobling influence of field sports pp. 327-335.

Appendix

Allen's breech-loading sporting rifle. Roper^s patent arm. Gun's patent breech-loader. Roberts^ conversion of muzzle into breech-loaders Hammond's military breech-loader. The Carter-Edwards rifle. Herr von Deyse's grenade rifle .pp. 336-342.

INTEODUCTIOK

'"' Shooting* is, therefore, as I have said, with one arm or ether,

the head and front of all American field sports ; while

every animal which we follow for the excitement of the pursuit, or for the sake of its flesh on the table, from the gigantic moose and formidable grizzlj" bsar to the crouching hare ; from the heaven-soaring swan or hawnking wild goose to the " twiddling " snipe, is brought to bag by means of the rifle, or the fowling- ])iece ; and to his thorough acquaintance and masterly performance, with one or both of these, in his own Jine, the rank of the sportsman must be mainly attributed, and his claim to pre-eminence ascribed." — Frank Forrester.

rr^HE writings of the above-quoted, popular and accomplished author have exerted a marked influence on the youth of this country ; so much so, indeed, that from utter indifference they have been roused to take the greatest interest in the chase. The result of this is, that to be accounted a ^' crack shot " has now become the ambition of a considerable proportion ot our youth, and it will be my endeavor in the following pages to aid and assist in furthering so laudable a desire by a few plain and simple directions, by follow-

Xll INTRODUCTION.

ing which a young man can not fail of becoming a fair shot ; after which it depends on nature and himself whether he is ever to attain the coveted distinction of being counted a " crack shot ;" for it must be remembered, that like the poet, so with the marksman, ^^nascitur, nonfiV

From the earliest ages, every effort has been made to produce and excel in the use of some death-dealing instrument ; and it is a curious and interesting study to trace the gradual development of the idea from the rude sling of the ancients down to our own time, when we have the most beautiful and effective weapons ; and though great strides have been made during the past few years, we have not by any means yet reached perfection, as is evidenced by the constant study that is given to perfecting the fire-arms at present in use. It will be sufficient for our puri3ose to commence with the cross-bow, which appears to have been in general use in England about the year 1100, during the reign of Henry I. ; as I think that it is the first weapon which was used with a barrel for guiding or conducting the missile. We find that the stock was hollowed out to receive a tube, which threw stone or metal bullets, and consequently received the name of the pebble-bow, or " arc-a-buse ;" i.e., a bow which conducts or directs. The same name (harquebus) was given to one of the early fire-arms.

The invention, or, more properly speaking, the introduction into England, of gunpowder in or about 1346, necessitated the use of some weapon by which it could be utilized ; and we read of hand-guns being used at the siege of Arras in 1414, and again at the siege of Lucca in 1430 ; but they

CHAPTER I.

ON THE GENEKAL PRINCIPLES OF FIRING AND MOTION OF PROJECTILES.

rr^HE general principles of firing are deduced from -^ the relation of positions existing between three imaginary Hnes named the line of fire, or projection ; the line of metal, or aim ; and the line of the flight of of the bullet, or trajectory. Though there is a great difference between them, they are frequently confounded one with the other, and the greater the range, the greater the difference.

By the line of fire, or projection, is meant the axis of the barrel indefinitely prolonged. It is the primary direction of the center of the bullet ; a direction which this center would not cease to follow if the bullet were subject to the propelling force of the powder alone.

The line of metal, or aim, is a straight line passing along the centre of the back sight, and the top of the front one, to the object aimed at. The hne thus obtained is called the artificial, in opposition to the natural hne, which passes through the highest points on the breech and muzzle of the barrel, and which is also called the natural point-blank range. The hne of metal forms, with the hne of fire, an angle more or less obtuse, which is called the angle of intersection. In order that the aim should be good, it is requisite that the two points determining the line of metal, and the object aimed at, should be in the same right line.

The trajectory, or line of flight of the bullet, is the curve described by the bullet in the air, in its course from the barrel to the object aimed at. As long as the bullet is within the barrel, the trajectory is identical with the line of fire; but as soon as it has cleared the muzzle, the trajectory diverges from the line of fire, and this divergence becomes greater the further the bullet is from the rifle. By raising the slide of the back sight, the muzzle of the rifle is elevated, the trajectory of the bullet is raised, and the range increased. By lowering the shde of the back sight, the muzzle is depressed, the trajectory is lowered, and the range of the bullet decreased. The line of fire, with a properly fitting bullet, is constantly above the

ON THE T II A J E C T K f .

Fl3. 1.

umm^

Fig. 1 is a representation of a detachment, the leading part of which is marching uninjured under fire, which, owing to the elevation of the trajectory, is taking effect further in the rear.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. The line AD indicates the axis of the rifle ; AC the line of sight ; and AB the trajectory or path described by the bullet. EF is a horizontal line, on which the shooter is supposed to be standing.

trajectory, and is a tangent to the latter toward the muzzle.

The line of fire, or projection and the line of metal, or aim, will be easily understood on reference to the diagrams ; but the trajectory, or line of flight of the bullet, win require further explanation, in order that the course of the bullet being drawn downward may be clearly understood ; and by what forces it is urged from its first direction, the the line of fire or projection. It will therefore be necesary to explain a few

18 THECRAOKSHOT.

terms used to designate tliese forces, in order to the proper comprehension of what is to follow.

Inertia — A property of matter by which it can not, of itself, put itself in motion, or, if in motion, has no power within itself to alter the direction or magnitude of its motion. A body can not produce action on itself.

Velocity — ^The degree of swiftness with which a body moves over a certain space in a certain time. When a body passes through equal spaces in equal times, its velocity is said to be uniform ; when through unequal spaces in equal times, it is variable ; when through greater spaces in each equal successive portion of time, it is accelerated; and when through a less space in each equal successive portion of time, it is retarded. Accelerated and retarded velocities may be uniform or variable.

Initial Velocity— The velocity at the instant of the departure of the bullet from the muzzle. The initial velocity of the bullet fired from the Enfield rifle is twelve hundred sixty-five and one -tenth feet per second.

Final Velocity — The velocity of the bullet at the end of any given range.

Terminal Velocity — The velocity attainable by falling bodies, which they can not exceed on account of the resistance of the air becoming equal to the force of

OF VELOCITY. 19

gravity. From this point, if the air were equally dense, the body would fall at a uniform rate. The terminal velocity of a spherical musket ball is said to be two hundred and thirteen feet per second.

Belative Velocity is that which has respect to the velocity of another body.

Velocity of Rotation (initial). — This depends upon the initial velocity and the inclination of the grooves or twist. In order to find the initial velocity of rotation of a bullet, divide the initial velocity in feet by the number of feet in which one complete turn is made by the bullet ; thus, the initial velocity of the Enfield rifle being twelve hundred sixty-five and onetenth feet per second, and the turn one in six and a half feet, the initial velocity of rotation of the bullet, fired from the Enfield, is one hundred ninety-four and six-tenths revolutions per second. The greater the initial velocity, the greater the initial velocity of rotation from the same rifle, and vice versa; therefore, projectiles fired from two rifles similar in all respects, with the exception of their spirality, may be impelled with the same initial velocity of rotation, the initial velocity of the rifle with the greatest spiral being reduced; so that

L for 1 rot. 1 for 1 rot.'

20 TEiJCRACKSHOT.

'Friction is a retarding force, arising from the parts of one body rubbing against the parts of another. A bullet is more or less retarded in its velocity by friction ; in the first place, by its friction on the sides of the barrel, and in the next place by the friction of the air, independent of its opposing force. This effect is produced by inequahties of surface, as in every case there is, to a lesser or greater degree, a roughness or unevenness of the surface, arising from a difference in form, and other causes; and therefore, when two bodies come together, the prominent parts of the one rub against the other, so that the progressive motion of the bullet is retarded, and often driven out of the straight line.

In the barrel the friction of the bullet will be greatly diminished by lubricating the rubbing surfaces with a greasy substance, for it acts as a polish by filling up the cavities of the rubbing surface, and thus makes the one slide more easily over the other. In \he air, the friction, and any tendency to be forced aside, will be greatly diminished by having the surface of the bullet made as smooth and perfect as possible : for an elongated rifle bullet does not roll like a spherical ball projected from a smooth bore, but s/fcZes through the air with a spiral motion, dragged, as it were, by the force of its own momentum.

Gravity is the term used for denoting the tendency

to fall to the earth, or rather toward its center. Attraction is also used in the same sense ; bodies falling in a straio-ht line have then- motion accelerated as they descend. A bullet in its flight partakes of both falling and. pivgressive motion.

The force of gravity is the tendency of every thing to fall in a straight line toward the center of the earth. In vacuo, every thing falls to the earth at the same rate, but not so in nature. Things Hghter than air, in consequence of the pressure of the atmosphere, ascend until they reach the strata of air of the same density as themselves ; things heavier than the air descend at rates in proportion to their surfaces and densities ; this is caused by the air's resistance. In vacuo, every thing falls about sixteen feet in the first second, and it has been found by experiment that the faU increases according to the square of the time the body is exposed to the influence of gravitation. Gravity is thus an increasing force, and at the end of the second second will have caused the body to have fallen four spaces of sixteen feet, or sixty-four feet, and so on. A uniformly accelerating force is measured by twice the space described from rest in one second. In dropping a bullet from a considerable height, we find that during the first second of descent it acquires a velocity of thirty-two feet per second. Its velocity at the commencement was nothing, for it began to move from a state of rest; at every one of the instants into which we may conceive a second of time to be divided, it acquired more and more velocity, until it attained the final velocity of thirty-two feet in a second. All these acquisitions of speed are equal in equal times, because the force of gravity is constant, and therefore exerts equal influences in equal times. Had the bullet descended during the whole second at the final velocity of thirty-two feet per second, it would have passed through thirty-two feet of space. Had it retained its initial velocity, which was nothing, it would have descended through no feet ; but as the velocity began with nothing and ended with thirty-two, its average throughout the second was sixteen feet i)er second, and therefore the bullet descends in the first second through sixteen feet. During the second second, the bullet stalling with a velocity of thirty-two, acquires an additional velocity of thirty-two, and therefore ends with a velocity of sixty-four feet a second, the average being forty-eight feet per second, and therefore the descent is forty-eight feet in height ; adding this to the space descended during the first second, sixteen feet, we find that in the first two seconds the total descent is sixty-four feet, and so on. The velocities acquired in descending are in exact proportion to the times of descent, and the Bpaces descended are proportional to the squares of

OFRESISTANCE. 23

the times, and therefore to the squares of the velocities. The resistance of the air materially retards velocities; if it did not, every rain-drop, descending, as it does, from a height of several hundred feet, would strike with a force as great as a rifle bullet.

Resistance, — In treating of the motion of projectiles, this refers to common air. The air is an elastic fluid which surrounds the earth to a height of forty-five miles ; the nearer the earth the greater the pressure of air from the attraction of gravity and the superincumoent strata; so that at the sea level, the barometer standing at thirty inches, the pressure of the atmosphere Is fourteen and three-quarters pounds on the square inch. Now, the bullet in its course displaces the aii', and this it can not do without its flight being afi'ected. The resistance- varies with the velocity in the same body; the greater the velocity the greater the resistance. A body moving with an increased velocity encounters an increased number of particles and impresses upon them an increased amount of force ; from this cause the resistance will be as the square of the velocities.

THEORY OF THE MOTION OP PROJECTILES.

In early times various ideas prevailed as to the path described by a projectile in its flight:

1st. That it went straight, and then fell perpendicularly.

2d, That it went straight for some distance, then in a cui've, and then fell perpendicularly.

3d. That its flight was curved throughout, but according to Tartaghd, in the sixteenth century, so shghtly that he compared ib to the surface of the sea.

4th. That it described a parabola, as. asserted by Galileo in the seventeenth century, except insomuch as it might be diverted from that course by the resistance of the atmosphere. A parabola is the section of a cone cut by a plane parallel to one of its sides.

It remained for Eobins, in 1742, to point out the actual path of the bullet, for he demonstrated the effect of the resistance of the air, which he stated to be as the squares of the velocities up to twelve hundred feet a second, and this ratio to be trebled after that velocity, in consequence of the vacuum in rear of the projectile. Air rushes into a vacuum at the rate of thirteen hundred and forty-four feet in a second.

Dr. Hutton, toward the end of the last century, came to the conclusion that the resistance was in a

OF GRAVITY.

somewhat higher ratio than the square of the velocities (V') up to fifteen hundi^ed or sixteen hundred feet a second, and that then it gradually decreased, but was never below that ratio.

The force of gravity having been explained, also the resistance of the air, we will now proceed to consider these forces as affecting the path of the bullet, which, at the instant of starting from its position next the charge, is under the influence of three forces; viz., the exploded gunpowder, the force of gravity, and the resistance of the air.

We will commence by considering the effect of the first two forces. The bullet, although under the in-

A.

_S C^

•

J

Ft, a fluence of gravity from its starting point, can not commence to fall until it loses the support of the barrel and emerges from it. The bullet, from the impressed force of gunpowder, will travel forward equal spaces in equal times; thus, in the first second from A to B, in the second from B to C, and in the third from C to D; but, in obedience to the law of gravity, it will fall in the first second sixteen feet, BE; at the end of the second second it will have fallen sixty-four feet^ CF; and at the end of the third second one hundred and forty-four feet, DG; being at the end of these seconds at the points E, E, G, respectively- Now this is the parabolic curve, which is not generally approached by projectiles, except when moving with very small velocities. The existence of the force of gravity is the sole cause of the course of the bullet being In n curved line, and of the necessity of giving elevation to all arms, varying in an increased ratio according to distance, if this force acted on the bullet in vacuo; but acting as it does in conjunction with the resistance of the air, which greatly increases the curve, the ra^o of the elevation necessary is greatly augmented.

The general form of the trajectory, under the forces of gunpowder and gravity, being established, we come to the conclusion that if a rifle is laid so as to have its axis horizontal, the bullet that is projected from it will reach the ground in one second if sixteen feet above it; in two seconds if sixty-four feet, and so on, no matter what the charge of powder, or what the velocity with which the bullet is projected; conse-

ON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR. 27

quently, if several rifles were laid with their axes in the same horizontal plane, the bullets projected from them at the same instant would reach the ground at the same moment, irrespective of their velocities or height above the ground.

The other force to be considered is the resistance of the air. As previously laid down, the bullet can not proceed through the air without being impelled in its flight. Eobins remarks "that he found that when a twenty-four pound shot was impelled by its usual charge of powder, the opposition of the air was equivalent to at least four hundred pounds' weight, which retarded the motion of the bullet so powerfully that it did not range one-fifth part of what it would have done if the resistance of the air had been prevented." It has been found by experiments that the greatest range of the common musket, with spherical bullet, fired with the regulation charge, was at twenty-five degrees; yet, by theoretical calculation, it should be forty-five degrees; also that the usual velocity was some five hundred yards per second, whilst in vacuo it would be nineteen thousand seven hundred and ninety-two yards per second. At an angle of from four to five degrees, the real range was six hundi^ed and forty yards ; without the resistance of the air, and at an angle of four and a half degrees, it would be three thousand six hundred and seventy-four yards.

28 T H E C E A C K U 11 O T .

or six times greater. The retardation, or the effect of the resistance of the atmosphere, varies with the surface, content, density, and velocity of the shot. The areas of spheres are as the squares of their diameters ; the contents of spheres as the cubes of their diameters. With two spherical shot of the same diameter, the one of lead, the other of iron, traveling wifch equal velocities, the retardation of the leaden projectile will be less than that of the iron, an^d inversely as their densities, or nearly as eight to eleven; the specific gravity of lead being eleven to three hundred twenty-five, that of iron seven to four hundred twenty-five.

It is a well-known fact that great irregularities occur in the path described by projectiles fired from smooth-bore guns. If a number of spherical bullets be fired from the same gun, under the same circumstances, with regard to charge and quality of gunpowder, and elevation, with the greatest care and from fixed rests, very few of the shot will range to the same distance; and moreover the greater part will be found to deflect considerably to the right or left of the line in which the gun is pointed, unless at very short range. The principal causes of these deviations are windage and the eccentricity of the projectile.