The practical fruit grower

Preface

Tn this age of book-making, a new book should not be urged upon the public unless to supply a real need. My excuse for presenting at this time this little volume, is the want, on the part of beginners in the business of fruit culture, and of the common farmer who has not the time nor inclination to study extensive works upon the subject, of a book that shall be sold at a small price yet cover the entire field of fruit cultivation, in all its details, in a plain and practical manner. The limits of the present work, however, will not allow of an extended discussion as to the merits of the many methods of growth and cultivation, and I have aimed to give only such as arc largely practiced by the most successful fruit growers.

S. T. MAYNARD.

Massachusetts Agricultural College,

Amherst. Mass., 1885.

THE APPLE — VALUE OF — ORIGIN.

Chapter I. The Apple (pybus Maltjs)

VALUE OF ORIGIN IMPROVEMENT BY HYBRIDIZATION AND SE- LECTION ESSENTIAL QUALITIES.

Value of the Apple. — This most ancient and important fruit of the temperate zone is found and grows successfully wherever civilization exists. It is largely cultivated throughout the whole of Europe, portions of Northern Africa, Northern Asia, China, Japan, Australia, South America, and in North America from Alaska to Florida. The product of the Apple crop in a single year in the United States alone has reached the enormous amount of over 50,000,000 bushels, and more than 1,000,000 acres are planted with Apple trees. Aside from the value of its fruit, the wood is very valuable for making weavers' shuttles, and for other purposes requiring hard, close-grained wood.

Origin. — The fruit we now enjoy is so entirely unlike the original type of the species as to be hardly recognized as belonging to it, yet when the specific test is applied, i. e., that of its reproduction from seed, we find that the seedlings, even from the most improved varieties, soon revert to the original form. It undoubtedly originated from the wild crab of Middle and Northern Europe. The type of the wild crab is seen in many of the wild seedlings common in neglected pastures throughout the United States, the fruit of which is hard and often acid, and the branches often tipped with sharp thorns.

The improved varieties now in cultivation are the result of the influence of improved condition of soil, climate, etc. Many of, or, I might say, most of the best varieties known to us, are chance seedlings, or sports, as they are called. No one can tell whether they resulted from crossing by natural fertilization or from a change in the germ due to superior surroundings of plant food and climatic influence.

Improvement in Varieties. — In considering the various subjects of improvement of varieties, methods of propagation, cultivation, pruning ? etc., it will be my aim to deal in general,

4 IMPROVEMENT OF THE APPLE.

principles, so that, for economy of space, the subject niay be referred to again when necessary without repetition.

Hybridization. — Very little attention has ever been given to the production of new varieties of the Apple by crossing, or hybridization ; a method which, in the case of some other fruits, has resulted in very marked progress in the improvement of varieties. Perhaps it may be of interest to those experimentally inclined in this direction to describe the process. This is performed by taking two flowers (and the process is the same with all fruits) of desirable varieties, — as, one a strong, rampant grower, while the other produces fruit of remarkable quality; removing the stamens from one flower before it opens, and, after tliis operation, inclosing it in a fine gauze bag. When the pistil of this flower is in the proper condition, i. e., when the end of the stigma is covered with a viscid fluid, the pollen from the other flower is applied to its surface, and then again inclosed in the bag, until certain that fertilization has taken place.

Selection. — Another method which promises good results is that of selection; that is, by sowing the most perfectly developed seed of the best varieties. By either of the above methods, there is but little incentive to the production of new varieties of Apples or Pears, on account of the long time required to produce fruit and to test its value in many localities, and the small money value in a new variety to the originator. Whatever is done in this line must be done for posterity and from a love of the work, but, I believe, there are great possibilities of improvement in the future in the light of the improvement of the past.

The best results have always come from the use of the most hardy native kinds, although the introduction of new blood, as it is called, is often marked by a wonderful improvement in the progeny. If a variety has marked failings, they are liable to be transmitted, although, in some cases, they may be overcome or covered up by the strong or valuable qualities of the other parent in the case of hybridization.

Important Qualities. — The qualities that are most important in a new variety are: Hardiness, vigor of growth, productiveness, and /in, quality. Without the three first, the last quality is of little consequence; because, with the people, cheap fruit in abundance is tin- greal want, and will add greatly to their health and, consequently, to theit happiness.

RAISING APPLES FROM SEED.

Chapter II. Propagation Of The Apple

APPLE SEEDLINGS — TO GET GOOD SEED — THE SEED BED — APPLE SEEDS — PRESERVING SEEDS — ROOT GRAFTLNG — CARE OF ROOT GRAFTS.

The varieties of Apples are propagated by budding or grafting upon seedlings. The seedlings used for stocks are most commonly grown from seed obtained from the pomace of the cider mills by washing. While some good seeds may be obtained in this way, the majority must be imperfectly developed, as most of the fruit used for making cider are the wind-falls and those injured by the codlin moth. To obtain good seed, the fruit of strong native trees should be selected. The fruit may be ground up for cider and the seeds then separated, or the Apples may be planted whole. Some of the best seedlings I have ever grown were from seed planted with the whole apple in the fall.

The Seed-bed. — The soil for the seed-bed should be deep and moist, and made rich by the addition of an abundance of well decomposed manure, or ground bone and potash. New soil will grow much better seedlings than that previously cultivated for several years. It should be broken up and planted with potatoes one year, or until it gets mellow. The first year after turf land is plowed there are many larva3 in the soil that feed upon the young roots of the seedlings and greatly injure them. If the seed is purchased from seed dealers, it is often difficult to get it in season for sowing in the fall. In such cases it must be preserved through the winter packed in boxes of sand and be kept in a cool cellar, as near freezing as possible ; or, the box may be placed partly under ground, out of doors, where there is no danger of standing water, taking care that the sand does not get dry during the winter.

As soon as the ground will work up fine, the seed should be sown with the sand in drills 18 inches apart, and so that the seedlings will stand two or three inches apart. All of the weak and imperfect seedlings should be thinned out as soon as their character can be determined, and the soil be kept free from weeds and mellow. If the seed-bed was properly prepared and the seed

ROOT GRAFTING.

good, the seedlings should have made from one to two feet of growth the first season.

The seedlings may be allowed to remain in the seed-bed until the following spring and then transplanted to the nursery to be budded. If to be root-grafted, they ' should be dug in the fall and carefully packed in moss or moist sawdust, and kept in a cool cellar until wanted for grafting.

Root Grafting. — During the winter, when very little can be done out of doors in the nursery, such work as root grafting and making cuttings is done indoors. The seedlings, previously dug and packed in moss or sawdust, are taken as needed from the cellar and the cions grafted, upon them at or just below the collar, i. e., J Qj that part where the root and top joins. The kind of graft known as tongue or whip-grafting is illustrated by Figures 1, 2 and 3.

The stock (Fig. 1) is taken in the left hand, and such lateral roots as will interfere with planting are shortened and the lower end cut off if the root is 'II t \ more than eight inches long; six to eight inches is the usual length of the root. An upward, slanting cut is then made, with the tongue as at a. The cion (Fig. 2), a piece four to six inches long, of the last season's growth of the A'ariety desired, and as nearly of the same size as the stock as possible, is then taken and a similar cut made at the base. The >4 In \ two parts are then pressed firmly together, and the union is bound firmly with waxed string or waxed cloth (Fig. 3). Some nurserymen prefer the string, which does not cover the entire surface of the cut, and others the band, which perfectly excludes the air and moisture. Cions should not be cut when frozen, but may be cut at any other time 1 and preserved in damp moss until wanted for use. Fig. i After the root-grafts are thus made, they are

packed in boxes of sand or light soil, and the soil very firmly packed around them, especially at the point where the graft is

Fig. 2.

made. In the spring the

t ransplanted t<> t he nursery.

ot-grafts and seedlings are to be

PLANTING IN THE NURSERY.

Chapter III. The Apple Nursery

SOIL — PLANTING BUDDING — TIME FOR BUDDING — HOW TO BUD

UTENSILS AND MATERIAL EMPLOYED POINTS TO BE OB- SERVED IN BUDDING NURSERY CULTURE — FORMING THE

HEAD

Soil. — The soil best suited for the growth of nursery trees should be deep, rich and moist, and be plowed to the depth of at least 15 inches. The seedling for budding should be dug as soon as the frost is out and the land will work mellow. After shortening the tap roots and some of the laterals a little, plant in rows four feet apart, and from six to eight inches apart in the row.

Planting. — After the land is thoroughly prepared and made smooth, a line is stretched and the seedlings (if the roots are not much branched) are planted with a tool called a dibble (Fig. 4). Where the soil is made mellow to a depth of more than one foot, seedlings, root-grafts, and cuttings may be very rapidly planted by the use of this tool. If the roots of the seedlings or root-grafts are much branched, they must be planted by opening a trench with a spade or plow, as deep as required to have the top bud just above the surface of the soil. The most important part of the operation of planting seedlings, root-grafts or long cuttings is that the soil be very firmly pressed about the lower ends. This may be done by the foot, or, much better, by the " tamper " (Fig. 5). This consists of a piece of two-inch plank cut with a base of about six to eight inches, and tapering up to three inches wide at the top, in which is inserted a hoe or fork handle.

Budding. — After planting, the seedlings require very little care, except good cultivation and a little pinching to force the growth into one main stem, until August, when they are to be budded with the variety desired for the orchard or for sale.

The best time for budding the apple is generally the last of

V

Fig. 4.

A

8 HOW TO BUI).

August, although, if the growth of the seedlings is likely to mature earlier, by reason of drouth, leaf-blight, or insects, they must he budded earlier. Or, if the season is moist and warm, it may be done as late as September. Budding must be done before severe freezing, as that causes a thickening or maturing of the soft cells of the cambium layer of the bark, thus making the union of the bud and stock much more difficult and very uncertain of success. Before beginning the operation of budding, the stocks should be carefully prepared by trimming off all of the lower branches and leaves for three or four inches from the ground, so as not to delay the work of cutting and inserting the buds.

The material used for tying may be the bast fibre obtained from the Russian mats that come around Russian iron. This is cut into lengths of from 10 inches to one foot, according to the size of the stock to be budded, and separated into thin, smooth bands of one-fourth of an inch in width. Cotton warp obtained from cotton factories is Fi§ " 5# being extensively used in some nurseries on account of its greater strength. The material used must be such that it will not shrink upon being wet, nor expand or loosen when dry. The bands are used in a moist condition; which is preserved, while in the field, by putting them in a " wrapper " — a roll of cloth lined with a sheet of oiled paper.

The knife used must be sharp and with a thin blade rounded at tlr Mil, as illustrated by Fig. C. The common shoe-knife, with a

short blade, is now most generally used; the upper .part of the point being rounded over so as to Fig. (i. answer the purpose of the

ivory blade of the old style budding knife.

How TO Bud. — The process of budding is illustrated by Figs. 7 to 11. The conditions of success arc: 1, the stock must be in a vigorous growing state, so that the bark will peel easily; 2, the budfl must be well matured; 3, the knife must be sharp; 4, the work must be done rapidly ; 5, the buds must be firmly and evenly hound in place.

When everything is ready for the work, the first thing is to prepare ;i Lol <>!' bud-sticks (Fig. 7). Shoots of medium size are selected, taking care to get only these that have but one leaf at a joint, as where there is more than one leaf, there are generally one or more fruit buds. The leaves are cut off, leaving about one-fourth of an inch ol* the petiole or stem for a handle with which to insert the hud. The bud-sticks arc kept from drying by using a wrapper, as for the hands. "Where much budding is to be done, i wo persons are generally employed; one to cut and put in the buds, and one to tie or wrap them.

BUDDING EXPLAINED.

Where only a small number are to be budded, the operator

carries the wrappers, both over the left shoulder, and with th e

knife makes first a cross-cut

about two inches from the

ground; then a longitudinal

one on the north side, so as not

to be injured by freezing and

thawing in winter; at the same

time raising the bark a little, as

shown in Fig. 8. A bud-stick,

Fig. 7, is then taken; with the

knife a cut is made just through

the bark about one-half inch

above the bud, taking only a

very thin portion of the wood.

The length of the cut must be

varied for the different kinds

of trees. For the peach, the

whole bud need not be much

more than one-half of an inch

long, while for the pear and

cherry it should be at least one

inch in length.

After the bud is cut, Fig. 9, the

lower end is inserted under the

raised bark of the stock and pressed down by means of the remaining part of the leaf stem, Fig. 10. If the bark does not peel easily

enough to be raised by the pressure upon the bud, the stock is not

in the best condition for success; and it may be necessary to raise

it by the use of the rounded portion of the blade of the knife.

After the bud is in position, it is tied by holding one end of the band in the left hand, placing it against the stock, and winding the other end over the first, so as to hold it while both hands are employed to bind the bud smoothly and firmly ; winding first upward, crossing above the bud, returning and tying below the bud, as shown in Fig. 11. The most important point in tying is to bind the bark down firmly and smoothly over the bud. After the trees have been budded a week or two, depending upon the condition of the weather, they should be examined, and if the growth is such that the bands are cutting into the stock so ma u as to injure them, they should be

10 FORMING THE TREE.

loosened and re-tied; or cut on the back side, if the bud is found well united with the stock.

The next spring after budding, the stock is cut off with a sharp knife, placing the blade on the side opposite the bud at the height of the cross-cut, and making an upward stroke, so that the knife will come out about one inch above the bud. When growth begins it will be found that the buds of the stock will start more vigorously than the one inserted, and when they are an inch or two long, they should be broken off, that the growth may all go with the inserted bud.

Nursery Culture. — The after-treatment of the bud and root-graft, in the nursery, should be the same; the object being the growth of clean, healthy, well-formed trees. Only one shoot should be allowed to grow, and if laterals start out, they must be pinched off. At the end of the first season's growth, or before they start in the spring following, the stocks are to be cut back to the ground, and only one shoot allowed to grow, that a clean, straight trunk may be obtained.

Forming the Head. — During the summer of the second year, if the growth has been satisfactory, the head is formed. If the trees are to be planted where they must be kept cultivated, the head should be formed five feet high. This is a difficult thing to do, but the tree must be headed up as high as possible by rubbing off the lateral buds, as soon as they start in the spring, from three to four feet up from the ground, and then pinching the ends of the lateral branches above ; leaving a clean leader in the centre, upon which laterals will be formed, as is shown by the dotted lines at b, Fig. 14, Page 15. The trees must have careful attention during the entire season if fine form is desired; and only those shoots should be allowed to grow that are needed to make a wellshaped head. A large amount of foliage should never be removed from any tree; and at this stage of growth, there should not be any necessity for so doing, if they have had proper treatment.

In the growth of fruit or any other kind of trees, it should be made a rule "not Id cut away more wood or foliage than is absolutely necessary to accomplish the desired end, i. e., the perfect-formed tree; for every cut upon a tree, whether large or small, can only result in weakness, although the injury may be more or l<ss overcome by good cultivation and an abundance of plant food." If the trees are making a weak growth, indicating exhaustion <>t' the soil, manure or chemical fertilizers must be used; lull they should be applied late in the fall or early in the spring, as a Late summer application often results in so late a growth of the trees thai tin' wood does not get well ripened, and the trees are injured in the winter.

TREES FOR THE ORCHARD. 11

Chapter IV, The Apple Orchard

TREES FOR PLANTING — PROPER FORM, AGE AND SIZE OF TREE — THE LAND FOR THE APPLE — ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESS — LAYING OUT THE ORCHARD — THE PLANTING BOARD — DIGGING THE HOLES — MANURING.

Trees for Planting. — The best trees for planting are vigorous trees that have reached a medium size at the age of three or four years from the bud or root-graft. While a large tree is not desirable, on account of the number of roots that must necessarily be destroyed in digging, it has more vitality and will stand more ill-treatment and exposure than a smaller one. The fibrous roots of the young tree will be found within a short distance of the trunk; while in an older one they have been extending a little further each year, and when dug little else but the main branches are obtained. It is a good plan to obtain trees, of medium size, if they are purchased, one or two years before the time of planting and set them carefully in the nursery row eight or ten inches apart; or if the trees were grown upon one's own grounds, take them up and transplant them again before setting out. Trees in this condition can be moved with nearly all the fibrous roots and not receive much check.

If the planter has the necessary skill to grow up a tree to the proper form and height, after they are planted in the orchard, it would be much safer to plant stocky, low-branched trees ; as a tall, slim one is liable to injury from the large surface exposed to a hot, drying atmosphere, after being removed from the shelter of the nursery. The training or " heading up " to the proper height is illustrated by Figs. 13 and 14, Page 15. For the majority of planters, until this skill is acquired, the nurseryman must grow the trees to the height adapted to orchard cultivation.

The land best suited for the growth of the Apple is a deep, moist, sandy loam ; but the Apple will give fair crops upon almost any soil, except a very sandy one.

Two methods of growth are in common use: The first where the trees are grown in turf; and second, where the land is kept un der cultivation with some other crop. No matter what system

12 LAYING OUT AND PLANTING.

may be adopted, one tiling must be constantly kept in mind, i. e., that we cannot expect satisfactory results unless there is an abundance of proper plant food and moisture in the soil in condition to be taken up by the roots of the trees.

Distance for Planting. — Trees of medium size, like the Early Harvest, Garden Royal, Fameuse, etc., should be planted thirty by thirty feet. Those that are kept in a close, compact form by heading-in may also be set the same distance. The larger kinds, like the Baldwin, Gravenstein, etc., if allowed to spread to full size, should be planted thirty-five by forty, or forty by forty feet.

Laying out the Orchard. — In planting an orchard, whether it is to be cultivated or not, it is advisable to have the rows straight and the trees at equal distances apart; not only for beauty, but for convenience in getting about among them. Perhaps the best way to do this is to use a long, hard-twisted cord or wire with marks at proper intervals upon it. The wire is much the best as it is not affected by wet or dryness, and will not stretch. This line should be stretched along two opposite sides and stakes driven at the marks upon it. Then stretch it from the opposite stakes, putting stakes at every mark, and it will be found that all are in line from every point of observation.

To lay out an orchard so that the stakes shall all be exactly in line is a very simple matter, but to plant the trees so they shall be equally true, is almost an impossibility, without the aid of something besides the eye. Two methods are sometimes adopted: The first, by using the same wire employed for staking out; and second, by what is known as the planting board. The objection to the first is, that it is in the way of the workmen in planting and is liable to be moved to one side or the other by only slight pressure.

The Planting Board, however, is free from the above objections, and is illustrated by I t i

Fig. 12. It consists of a ' n ftJ

narrow board about four Fig. 12.

feet long, with a notch in the centre and one equally distant from this at each end. Before digging the holes, this board is placed with the centre notch against the stake and held firmly, while the stake is pulled up and put in the notch at one end, and another slake at tin- notch in the other end. The board can now be taken away and the hole dug, taking care not to disturb the two stakes.

Digging the Holes. — If many trees are to be planted, it is best to dig as many holes during the middle of the day as can be tilled with trees during the last two hours of the afternoon and the first two hours <>f the morning, as the roots will be much leas liable to injury than if planted in the hot sun in the middle of the day. If the laud is to he cultivated, the holes need be only large enough to allow the spreading of all of the roots in their natural

MANURING THE ORCHARD. 13

positions; their size must depend upon the size and kind of tree planted. If the trees are to be planted in turf, it will be advisable to dig the hole three to four feet in diameter and to loosen the subsoil somewhat. The surface soil should be thrown in a pile by itself, to be used for filling around the roots, and the subsoil in another pile, to be spread upon the surface.

If the soil is poor, it is necessary for success that some well rotted manure or fertilizer be put with the soil for filling in about the roots. This must be thoroughly mixed with the soil, or it may result in injury rather than benefit. If coarse manure only is at hand, it should not be used until the roots have been covered with two or three inches of soil, when it may be applied with safety. The amount to be used must vary according to the poorness of the soil and the strength of the manure, ranging from one to two shovelfuls of fine, well decomposed manure; or from two to four large handfuls of fine ground bone; or one to two handfuls of the prepared bone and potash, well mixed with the soil. Many people will blame the nurseryman because the trees they plant do not grow, when the main cause is in the fact that there is nothing in the soil to make them grow. One has as good a right to expect a good crop of corn from land with no fertilizing elements in it, as a good growth of trees in a similar soil. If some of the people who fail in tree planting from this cause, — and most failures do result from starvation of the tree, — could see the amount of manure used by the nurserymen and successful orchardists (and needed, too) to make their trees grow, they would cease to wonder why theirs do no better, and put the blame where it belongs.

14 PREPARING FOR PLANTING.

Chapter V. Setting The Apple Orchard

DIGGING TREES FROM THE NURSERY — PREPARING TREES FOR PLANTING FORMING THE HEAD — PLANTING THE TREES CUL- TIVATION — TURF CULTURE — SUPPLYING FOOD TO THE ORCHARD.

Digging the Trees from the Nursery. — To those who may have grown their own trees, I offer a few words of advice as to the best way to get the trees from the ground with the least injury. Nursery trees are best dug by three men; two with spades, and one to pull out the trees after they are loosened. The two men with spades first remove the surface soil down to the upper lateral roots, for a space of at least two feet from the trunk on each side ; the spades are then inserted, the soil loosened, and the roots outside of the circle of soil removed are cut off. After loosening the soil, both spades are inserted, and with a lifting movement, the third man at the same time pulling, the tree is lifted with nearly all of the fibrous roots within the space of two or three feet. The trees should be thrown in piles of from ten to twenty-five, and covered with a mat or blanket. If not to be planted at once, they should be removed to near the place of planting and be "heeled in;" that is, the roots covered carefully with soil.

Preparing the Tree for Planting. — No matter how carefully the trees are dug, more or less of the roots will be destroyed or injured. As trees are often received from the nurseries, there is Little f<> them but the top and a few stubs of roots. In this condition, there are a large number of buds on the top to "be supplied with food and moisture from a small amount of roots. The consequence is that none of the branches make much growth; or, perhaps, evaporation is so great from the expanding buds and the Large amount of surface of the branches exposed, that the moisture is dried <mi latter than it is supplied by the scanty roots, and the tree dies.