Seeley's question book; containing methods of teaching all subjects commonly taught in the public schools, together with questions and answers fully covering these subjects. For teachers' use in personal review, preparation for the recitation or in actual class work

Front matter

Class Book

LBni

1^1

Contents

Chapter Page

I.— Introduction 7

II. — Reading 12

Introduction

EVERY young teacher, no matter what his previous training has been, is often puzzled as to the proper material to be presented to his pupils, and as to the ends which he should definitely seek to reach. As a consequence of this perplexity there is a great deal of waste effort and loss of time. It is like a man lost in a pathless desert, or in a vast forest with no sign-board to guide or no star in the heavens to beckon him to safety. He wanders in bewilderment and confusion, often finding after long and weary effort that he has been moving in a circle and that his most anxious endeavors have brought him no nearer his goal. Certainly this picture is not overdrawn so far as the inexperienced teacher is concerned, or with many young teachers. Very often the new teacher finds neither course of study nor definitely outlined work to assist him, and like the mariner upon the wide sea without chart or compass, he may drift with the current or even steer his craft in the wrong direction.

With the over-crowded curriculum, with the many new subjects demanding a hearing, with the greater thoroughness expected in those subjects that have already won recognition, and with the increasing demand that pupils shall be earlier prepared for the responsibilities of life, even experienced educators are at a loss as to the best and most profitable material to be presented to the child. How much more must the novice in the work of teaching find himself bewildered at the great problem confronting him. No wonder that he takes the text-books at hand and blindly follows their pages as others have done before him, with the narrow idea that the purpose of the school is to put the pupils through as many books as possible. It is an old saying that the school is for the child, but it needs often to be reiterated. The child should be the center of all educational thought and purpose. There is a great difference between the above two conceptions, namely, — ^education consists in filling the mind with knowledge, and education consists in the development of the child. I would have the teacher early conceive the purpose of education as set forth in the second definition, and bring to bear all the forces of intelligence, knowledge and training in the effort to attain that end. The object of this book is to assist in this important work.

According to the report of the United States Commissioner of Education, the American child attends school an average of about five years of two hundred days each. This means, then, that the most important work of the great body of American teachers must be accomplished with the mass of children before their eleventh or twelfth year, while they are still in the common school. If education is essential to American citizenship, the most important factor in engendering patriotism, in preparing to earn a livelihood, in fortifying against evil habits, and in preparing for a just conception of duty towards fellowbeings and towards God, is the common school teacher. It is he who must shape the ideals, lay the foundations, and carry out the training that will have for its fruitage intelligent, self-respecting, law-abiding, industrious, duty-loving. God-fearing men and women. This is the great mission of the common school teacher and there is no nobler mission on earth!

INTRO DUCTIOJV 9

But what are the specific subjects that are to be employed in the school in attaining these results? In other words, what have the parents a right to expect that the common school shall accomplish with and for their children ? Surely this is a fair and a practical question the answer to which must not be shirked. It is fair because the people are spending colossal sums of money upon their schools, and devoting a great deal of thought and self-sacrifice to the education of their children. They are entitled to know that their money is well spent and that the years in which they give up their children are not being wasted. The teacher is the educational expert put in charge of the school and he must be held answerable for results. If this is not true there is no excuse for the Normal School, the training class, or the institute maintained at public expense for the preparation of teachers. The schoolroom is the domain of the teacher where the full responsibility must be assumed and carried out by an expert in charge. The office of the people is to furnish abundant means for the maintenance of the school, sustain the teacher in wise regulations in regard to discipline, punctuality, regularity, etc., and give such moral support as is possible in matters of home-work, maintaining the good reputation of the school, and holding up the hands of the teacher. Having lived up to these requirements, they have done their part and have a right to expect the teacher to do his.

It is a practical question for the obvious reason that the pupils are being prepared for life, and surely the parents have a right to know what end is sought and how well that end is being attained. If teachers would give more attention to this question, would take a comprehensive view of the whole work before them, in a word, would see "The future man in the boy before lO them," there would be less criticism from parents of the work that the school accomplishes.

I would answer the question as follows: The child at the completion of the common school course should be able, —

1. To speak and write the English language accurately, not merely from habit, which of course is of chief importance, but also with a knowledge of the underlying reasons as taught by grammar. The power of expressing one's self well, whether in speaking or writing, is an important essential to success in life.

2. To spell correctly such words as he will need to use in letter- writing or composition, and to write legibly.

3. To read from a newspaper or ordinary book with clear enunciation, correct pronunciation, and such understanding as not only to gain the meaning himself but to convey it to others when reading aloud.

4. To be master of such arithmetical knowledge as is necessary for the ordinary affairs of life.

5. To be familiar with the history of our own country and possess some acquaintance, with the most important events in the world's history.

6. To know the elementary processes in our scheme of government so as to be able to act the part of intelligent and patriotic citizenship when called upon to do so.

7. To possess a good knowledge of the geography of our own country and a general knowledge of the geography of the whole world.

8. To understand the structure, nourishment, support, and care of the human body.

9. To know something of elementary science so as to comprehend the ordinary phenomena of the world about him.

INTRODUCTION ii

10. In addition to these he will know many things that cannot well be formulated; such as, music, drawing, handiwork, and, in its broadest sense, moral living.

This is not too much to demand of the school for every normal child that is fully committed to its influence for the complete common school course. If the above results are not attained the parent may justly complain. If the teacher has such a definite purpose before him it may be expected that far better results can be secured and higher ideals reached.

Having the purpose of the common school clearly in mind and the end to be aimed at before us, we may turn to a discussion of each of the individual subjects through which that purpose and that end will be secured. The plan pursued in the succeeding chapters is, first, a general statement of the aim to be reached in the subject under discussion; and second, a series of questions bearing upon that subject, logically arranged and sufficiently complete fully to illustrate the purpose sought. There will be ample references showing sources drawn from and also suggesting further material for such as are able to go deeper into any given theme. This plan, it is hoped, will serve to clarify educational work in the mind of the teacher, and at the same time be a source of information, instruction and help.

Chapter II. Reading

THE MOST important subject of the school course is reading in its broadest sense. The ability to read is the key to all future educational success. It opens the door to all knowledge and furnishes the individual with a means for future self-improvement. Literature, history, science, art, as well as a knowledge of passing events of the world, are revealed to him through this means in newspapers, magazines, and books. Hence, reading is first in importance in the work that the school undertakes. It is also first in point of time. The child begins to learn to read the first day he enters school, and the progress of his formal education can be measured at first by his progress in reading. He must possess this key to knowledge before he can enter other fields. The discussion of this question, and a proper understanding of the ends to be sought in reading must be considered of paramount importance.

What are the ends to be sought in reading? I think that a twofold purpose must be in the mind of the teacher; namely, the form and the conUnt of. reading. Under /o?'m we include the correct articulation and pronunciation of words, proper inflection, and emphasis. The child must learn to pronounce the words instantaneously and correctly at sight and with clear articulation. He must not need to spell out the word, but must grasp it as a whole. Whether the word or the idea IS comprehended first is not under consideration, but the probabilities are that both are grasped simultaneously. In any case, the word and its meaning must both be known. Nor does the method of securing this result come under discussion here. Whatever the method employed, the aim must be to give the child a fluent, accurate, clear and natural pronunciation.

There must also be a natural rendering of the sentence as a whole, giving proper emphasis and inflection so that the meaning will be clear to the hearer. This can be brought about only by a great deal of practice and drill. Natural and pleasant expression is likely to be obtained only when the child has comprehended the thought, which he, in turn, gives to others in the form of reading.

Having overcome the mechanical difficulties, the attention is turned more and more to the content^ or thought side of reading, which is by far the more important object to be sought. There is but little value in reading which is mere calling of words, however accurately they may be spoken or however pleasantly the sentence may be rendered. Hence the modern idea of reading calls for many things to read, rather than the constant and painful repetition of the same pieces as was the custom in the old time school and with the earlier reading books. The carrying out of this idea has led publishers to place many of the richest gems of literature within the reach of all, so that, while the child is learning to read, he may also lay the foundations of a good taste and knowledge of English and American literature. Instead of forming a love for trash he may come in contact with the very best that the language affords. Herein lies one of the greatest opportunities of the teacher. ^, It is as easy to form good habits of reading as to form bad ones, and the teacher would be seriously wanting in appreciation of his opportunity who failed to select from the abundance of pure and suitable literature now within his reach, and lead his pupils to read and love it. A wise selection of literature will afford a content in the child's mind of pure and noble thoughts and do much in shaping his moral life. The child will also commit to memory many gems of literature at that period when memory is most retentive.

With this foundation, laid in connection with his reading lessons, the child will know what is the best literature, and have opened to him avenues of information and literary enjoyment which will be likely to influence his whole future life.

To recapitulate, then, the aim to be sought in reading is to give the pupil the ability to read distinctly and with proper inflection, and to establish in him, by an abundance of pure and standard material a good literary taste and a knowledge of and liking for the great masters of English.

Questions and Answers.

/. What is reading?

Reading is getting thought from the printed page.

2. Define reading as an art.

Reading as an art is the interpretation and expression of thought, sentiment, and emotion as found in written or printed composition.

J. Why do we read?

To gain practical guidance in every day affairs; to be helped by the experiences of others; to share in the learning and wisdom of the past; to obtain pleasure, knowledge and moral uplift.

/J.. What are the physical requisites for good reading ?

A well controlled and modulated voice, distinct articulation, clear enunciation, healthy and free respiration.

5. What mental eqidpnient does a good reader need? Keen perception, clear conception, vivid imagination,

broad and genuine sympathy, strong imitative powers, well cultivated taste and judgment, artistic skill.

6. What is articulation ?

Articulation is the utterance of the elementary sounds of a language, and of their combinations.

y. What is the difference between enunciation and pronunciation ?

Enunciation means the manner of uttering words; pronunciation is the utterance of the words in accordance with the laws of accent, sound, etc.

8. What are some of the most common errors in articulation ?

The omission of the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables; the incorrect articulation or use of vowel sounds; dropping the sound of terminal letters; adding or omitting syllables; blending the ending of one word with the word following.

g. How may such faults be remedied?

By careful practice in the utterance of the elementary sounds, and a close observance of the phonetic analysis of words.

10. What is an elementary sound?

An elementary sound is a simple, distinct sound.

//. Name and define the classes of elementary sounds.

Vocals, consisting of pure tones only. Subvocals, the obstructed sounds. Aspirates, sounds produced by the breath alone.

12. What is the standard of pronunciation ?

Thcj ultimate standard of pronunciation for a language is the usage which prevails among the best educated portion of the people to whom the language is vernacular, particularly those gifted as public speakers.

7j. What is accent ?

Accent is the prominence given to one syllable over another in a word.

I /J.. Name aiid illustrate kinds of accent. How indicated ?

The primary, or strong accent; the secondary, or weak accent. The former is usually designated by a heavy accentual mark; the latter, by a light mark: as care'- worn', con'tradict'.

75. What of the laws of accent ?

There is no definite law of accent for the English language. The tendency is to place the chief accent near to, or at, the beginning of a word. In many cases of two-syllable words the verb has the final accent and the noun or adjective the other: contest' (verb), con'test (noun).

16. What is emphasis f

Emphasis is a special stress of voice upon one or more words of a sentence.

77. What is the object of emphasis ?

The object of emphasis is to attract attention to some particular word, thus indicating that the idea to be conveyed depends especially upon that word,

18. How are emphatic words distingtiishd in print f By using italics^ small capitals, or CAPITALS.

79. In what three ways may words be emphasised? By pronouncing the word with increased force; by inflection; by prolonging the vowel or liquid sound.

20. What are the two kinds of emphasis ? Define eacJi. When a word is emphasized simply to indicate the

importance of an idea, the emphasis is said to be absolute. When there is an antithesis, expressed or implied, the emphasis is relative.

21. What is the value of emphasis in reading? Emphasis constitutes the most important feature in

reading or speaking, and, if properly used, gives life and character to language.

22. What is necessary that a person inay properly einphasize what he is reading?

A thorough understanding of the thoughts which the language is meant to convey, and a just appreciation of their relative values.

2^. What are inflections ?

Inflections are the turns or slides in the voice, used in reading or speaking.

2^. Name^ define^ and illustrate kinds of inflections.

The rising inflection or upward slide of the voice, marked ('). Are you hurt?' The falling inflection, or downward slide of the voice, marked f). I am not hurt.'^ The circumflex, a union of the rising and falling inflections, marked (A)- Is he old' or is he young ?^ He is old,^ not young/

25. When should each be used?

The falling inflection is generally used whenever the sense is complete. When the sense is incomplete or the meaning demands a pause, the rising inflection is used. The circumflex is used chiefly to indicate the emphasis of irony, doubt, supposition, or contrast.

26. What is a monotone ?

i8 SEELE V'S Q UESTION BOOR'

A monotone is an unvaried tone throughout a sentence or discourse.

2y. When is it permissible ?

It may be used to express solemnity or sublimity of thought, or intensity of feeling. It is used, also when the entire sentence is emphatic,

28. What is modulation ?

Modulation is the variation of sounds in speaking, caused by the proper use of tone, pitch, force, emphasis, and inflection, and prompted by the feelings and emotions which the subject inspires.

2g. Define pitch. Compass.

Pitch is the highness or lowness of voice as related to a definite key. The range of the voice above and below this key-note is its compass.

JO. What is force?

Force is the loudness of the voice, or degree of energy, with which sounds are uttered.

J 7. What is stress ?

Stress is the manner in which force is applied.

J2. What is movement ?

Movement is the rate or speed of utterance.

jj. Distinguish betwee^i quality and quantity.

Quality has reference to the kind of sound; quantity to the volume of sound. The quantity and quality of tone should always correspond with the nature of the subject.

j^. What is a pure tone ?

A pure tone is a clear, smooth, flowing sound, in moderate pitch. It is adapted to the expression of solemn, serious, tranquil, descriptive, and didactic thought.

J5. What is the orotund quality ?

It is the full, deep, round, pure tone of voice, adapted to the expression of sublime, pathetic, and reverential emotions.

^6. What is a climax ?

A climax is a sentence, or succession of sentences, in which each idea rises in importance, force, or dignity above that which precedes it. It should be read with a gradual increase in intensity, and a change in pitch and movement.

J/. What is a pause ?

A suspension of the voice in reading or speaking.

j<5*. Name and define the kinds of pauses.

Grammatical pauses are those indicated by punctuation marks. Rhetorical pauses are suspensions of the voice for the purpose of emphasis, or to give clearer expression to what is read. Poetical pauses are used to make prominent the melody of the measure, and in rhyme, to allow the ear to appreciate the harmony of similar sounds. Caesural pauses are metrical breaks in poetry, demanded by the meaning.

jp. What are rhetorical points ?

Characters used to mark the divisions in composition. They are: the comma(,); semicolon (;); colon (:); period (.); interrogation point (?) ; exclamation point (!); dash ( — ) ; parenthesis ( ) ; brackets [ ] ; quotation marks (" ").

/J.0, Name the etytnological points and tell for what used.

^The apostrophe (') used to mark the omission of a letter. The caret (A) to show the omission of a word. The diaeresis (••) to mark the separation of contiguous vowels. Marks of quantity ( a a a ) to show the length of vowel sounds. Marks of accent — the grave(^), the acute (0, and the circumflex (a) The h3^phen (-) used to separate parts of compound words, or syllables.

^i. What are the points of reference ?

The asterisk (*), dagger (f), double dagger (J), section (§), parallel (||), and paragraph (^). These marks are used to refer the reader to some other part or page of the book.

^2, Give rules for the use of the comma. The comma is used:

(1) To separate a series of words or ohrases in the same construction: Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing onward through life he goes.

(2) To separate introductory phrases and clauses from the word they modify: The boat having anchored, the passengers disembarked.

(3) To separate short and closely connected members of compound sentences: I love my country, therefore I will defend her.

(4) To separate a long complicated subject, or one ending in a verb, from its predicate: He who is not worried over trifles, is able to bear great misfortunes.

(5) To separate non-restrictive phrases and clauses from the words they modify : Rising in his place, he addressed the chairman of the meeting.

(6) To separate contrasted elements: We live in deeds, not years.

(7) To separate appositive, parenthetical, or independent elements: He invented, it is said, more than one hundred machines.

(8) To separate transposed words, phrases, and clauses: In whatever he undertakes, he succeeds.

(9) To separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence: Then Agrippa said unto Paul, ** Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian."

(10) To show the ellipsis of a verb: You seek wealth, I, honor.

4.J. When should the semicolon be used? The semicolon is used:

(1) To separate short, slightly connected sentences: The flowers bloom; the birds sing; all nature is glad.

(2) Before as^ namely^ viz., introducing an example for illustration: A noun is a name; as, Mary, Tom.

(3) Before an example introduced by for or but, and showing reason or contrast: Rejoice the soul of thy servant; for unto thee, O Lord, I lift my soul.

(4) Before a series of expressions having a common dependence: The speaker asserted that the people were oppressed; that they were overtaxed; and that they had no means of redress.

^/j.. When is the colon used?

The colon is used:

(1) After a formal introduction to a speech, a quotation, etc., or the address at the beginning of a letter: — Dear Sir: — ^ Please send, etc.

(2) Between parts of a compound sentence in which semicolons have been used: We saw the shadov/ moving along the dial; we saw the homeward bound peasants: so we turned our faces toward the city, leaving the mountains behind us.

(3) In titles of books, etc. : A History of Grammar: A Complete Account of the Formation and Growth of the Language.

^5. What is the rule for the use of the comma ^ semicolon and colon in a sentence ?

When pauses of three degrees of strength occur in a sentence, the weakest requires the comma, the stronger, the semicolon; and the strongest the colon.

"There are visions of conquests, of splendor, and mirth.

Floating over each drear winter's day ; But the tintings of Hope, on his storm-beaten earth.

Will melt like the snowflakes away. ' '

4.6. When is the period used?

The period is used after complete sentences, titles, and abbreviations: The horse is lame. A book of verse. By Rev. Thos. Green.

^7. What other punctuation marks are used at the end of sentences ?

The exclamation mark is used after an exclamatorysentence: Alas, his fate is sealed!

The interrogation point is used after an interrogative sentence: Where is my book?

4.8. In what way should the dictionary help in the study of reading ?

The dictionary should be placed convenient for use and pupils encouraged to consult it freely. They should be taught to look up the meaning of all words whose meaning they do not know, and to depend upon the dictionary for help in spelling and pronunciation.

4.(). What instruction sJiould be given theinas to its use?

They should be taught how to find words; the use of the diacritical marks, and the determination of correct pronunciation from these marks; where to find special words, as Scripture names, foreign phrases, biographical and geographical names, abbreviations etc. ; how to find the history and origin of words; how to determine the meaning of the word in the particular sense where it is used.

50. What are the purposes in teaching reading ? To enable the child to get the thought from the printed page and to give that thought to others.

5/. What knowledge should the teacher possess before attempti7ig to teach a child to read?

He should know something of the child's home life and environment, with what classes of objects he is familiar, and what is his range of thought and language.

^2. What should precede the study of written word forrns ?

Conversation and language lessons, b)^ which the child will become accustomed to his new environment, gain self-confidence, and learn to express his thoughts freely. Such lessons will also enable the teacher to understand the child better, and will show him the extent of the child's ideas and the limitations of his knowledge.

5J. What are the essentials of reading?

Mastery of the form and sound of words; ability to pronounce new words; an understanding of the meaning of words; the power to picture the things which the words describe.

^5. Give some suggestions for first lessons in reading.

Choose such sentences for the first lessons as possess vital interest for the child. Read the sentence to him and have him repeat it. Add other sentences bearing upon the same subject and read them in the same way. At first this will not be reading on the part of the child, but mere repetition. Very soon, however, he will learn to distinguish the words, and then to recognize them when placed in new relations.

Such words should be used as are easiest to recognize, — not the shortest words, but nouns, adjectives, and action words that represent things with which the child is familiar. A few such phrases as, I am, he was, etc., may be taught as a whole.

These little lessons should be arranged as short stories and written in such a way as to arouse and hold the child's interest.

After each practice lesson in reading, there should be a thorough drill in recognizing and pronouncing words.

This work should be kept up until the child has acquired a working vocabulary of at least one hundred words.

55. What should be the order in teaching words to a child?

A child should first hear the word, then pronounce it, then compare it with other words, afterwards distinguish its sounds, and finally separate it into its component letters.

^6. When should the sounds of letters be taught ?

After the child has gained a small reading vocabulary, he should begin to compare the words he knows. He will readily see the resemblance between such words as fall and call, and will easily recognize other words with similar endings. Then he should be taught the sounds of the initial letters, singly and in combination with the sounds he already knows.

57. How long should the study of sou7id be continued?

Through the first four or five years of school life, or until the child has mastered the sounds of the letters and can use this knowledge in recognizing and pronouncing new words.

^8. Should the diacritical marks be taught ?

With the younger children, if these marks have been taught in connection with the key-word, they will be helpful. But children may be taught to pronounce correctly without them. With the older pupils who use the dictionary, they are quite necessary, and the complete list of them should be learned.

5p. What should be the result of this kind of word study ?

By the use of the various phonograms which he has learned, the child should be able to pronounce readily all new words, without help from the teacher, and thus be able to master the lessons for himself.

60. Is a child who has gained this mastery of words able to read?

He is not. This is one of the essentials of reading but not its aim. He has mastered the vehicle of thought when he has learned to pronounce words but he has not gained the thought itself.

61. After a child has learried to pronounce and recognize words^ what should he then learn ?

Their meaning should be taught. As a rule, the first words which the child is taught are those with whose meaning he is familiar, and but little time need be spent upon this part of the work. But as he advances new words will be presented and he needs to be carefully taught their meaning,

62. To what should the first efforts of the teacher be directed^ ift beginning the teaching of a new reading lesson f

He should seek to find out how much the child knows, how much he can find out for himself of what he does not know, and how much he needs to be instructed.