Across Thibet

Front matter

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Contents

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CHAPTER L

Chapter I. Among The La]mas

How the Journey was Suggested^Raclimed — At Moscow — Through the Ural Mountains — Arrival atDjarkent — Organizing the Caravan — At Kuldja — Father Dedeken — Abdullah, the Interpreter — Across the Tien-Chan — In the Province of Hi — Kirghiz and Kalmucks —Chinese Justice — The River Kungez — Moguls— Exposing the Dead — Visit to a Grand Lama — A Lama Monastery and Pagoda — Timiu'lik — Kirghiz Immigrants— Valley of the Tsakma— The Joy of the Desert.

It used to be the fashion to invoke tlie muses before one began to write a naiTative, but all tliat is out of date, and, for my own part, I would simply entreat tlie cross-grained rheumatics and treacherous fever to be so kind as to let me keep my word mth my publisher, and write him with as little delay as possible the story of a journey which I undertook with great pleasure, and which, as I must frankly admit, it is much less agreeable to put upon paper.

In January, 1889, we were talking, at the house of my good friend Henri Lorin, as he reminded me upon my return last winter, about travel and exploration, and he asked me if I had any fresh project in view. I told him that a very interesting journey would be one from Paris to Tonquin overland, cutting out a route of one's own across the whole of Asia. And when he asked me to indicate my probable itinerary upon the map, I drew a line through Chinese Turkestan, the higher tablelands of Thibet, and the valleys of the great rivers of China

EACHMED.

3 ACliOSS THIBET.

and of tlie ludo-Cliiuese peninsula. Those wlio were looking over my slioulder thought this scheme a splendid one, but, for my own part, still feeling the effects of my journey over the Pamir, I ^vould not allow myself to think of putting it into execution, for the good reason that when I let my fancy turn to travel I am sure to be carried away by it.

A few months later, on coming back from the Exhibition, where I had been to catch a glimpse, as it were, of the distant lands in which I had wandered, this same friend wrote to say that there was a person desirous of traveling with me in Asia. The first thing to ascertain was whether it was someone prepared to follow me blindfold, for my intention was not to play the globe-trotter but to explore. I was told that this was so, and, forgetting all about my resolve to take a rest, I plunged into the study of the narratives of Father Hue and Prjevalsky.

Little time was lost in coming to an understanding with the Due de Chartres, who offered to participate in the expense of an exploring expedition in which his son was to take part. We at once ascreed that our undertakinsr should be a national one, and that the collections we might make should be handed over to our Museums. My future companion, Prince Henry of Orleans, was delighted at the plan which I submitted to him, though it was a somewhat vague one, for traveling has this much in common with war, that, before getting upon the ground, it is idle to commit one's self to any positive arrangements.

The preliminary preparations having been rapidly completed, we left Paris on the 6th of July, just when Paris was in the full fever of her Exhibition. At Moscow we were to be joined by Rachmed, my faithful companion during my two pre\dous journeys, he having been found out for me in the Caucasus at the place where I had expected he would be, for I knew where Kachmed prefers to live when he is not on the tramp. The worthy fellow was preparing to come to the Exhibition, by way of realizing a dream he had for some time been cherishing ; his ticket had been taken and he was about to embark at Batoum,

OROANIZING THE CARAVAN. 3

when lie got my telegram, saying that if lie cared to come to China mth me he was to go and wait for me at Moscow. So he went and changed his ticket for one to Moscow, not in the best of humors, for it cost him a pang not to see the Exhibition. Still he did not hesitate, being afraid, as he confided to one of my friends, that he would displease me. Rachmed is an Uzbeg by bii'th, and belongs to one of the branches of that fine Turkish race which, as I am never tired of repeating, comprises so many noble specimens of humanity.

In Russia we were treated most handsomely, and furnished with all necessary letters of recommendation to the Consuls along the Chinese frontier. Remaining at Moscow only long enough to make the many necessary purchases, we Just stopped at Nijni- Novgorod, went down the Volga, ascended the Kama, and traversed the Ural chain of mountains. At Tinmen we again took boat, and landed at Omsk, whence, after making some purchases, we started again for Semipalatinsk, where we purchased the European goods which we were afraid of not being able to get at the frontier itself, and, after being veiy much jolted in a tarantass, arrived at Djarkent, the last town on Russian territory.

Before entering China we had to organize our caravan and recruit the staff needful for carrying out our project, but I mil spare the reader an enumeration of the details and trouble entailed by these preliminaries of an exploring party. Let me, however, say that the thorough organization of a caravan, for a journey which is to end Heaven knows when or where, is the most difficult part of an explorer's work. In the Asiatic countries we were about to traverse vehicles are not used and the rivers are not navigable, being obstacles instead of means of communication as they are elsewhere. It is imperative, therefore, neither to forget anything nor to take a single superfluous article. So one tries to think of everything, to foresee all contingencies, and, after ha^dng eliminated as much as possible, it is astonishing to find how heavy the load is.

Meanwhile, we liad to recruit our men at Djarkent on tlie frontier of Siberia. This was most difficult, for here we could only secure men very much below the mark, and not at all built for a lono" journey. Kachmed inspected them first, and, in presenting them to me, his unvarying observation was, " They are of no use for the road." I could see that he was right. There was not one of them who had respectable antecedents ; they were a pack of lazy and penniless fellows Avho were anxious only to get across the frontier in our wake. Among them there is not one of those adventurers, vigorous and ready for anything, ^vho have already looked death in the face, and ^vould go through fire after the leader whom chance had given them, provided that leader had succeeded in attaching them to himself by a mixture of good and of bad usage. How much we regretted not having our base of operations in Russian Tui'kestan — at Samarkand, for instance, where there is no lack of good men. It is true we had three Russians w^ho would suit us very well, but they made it a condition, when they took service mth us, that they should not go beyond the Lob Nor.

Septeniher 6. — We left Djarkent on the 2d, and, marching by short stages, reached Kuldja to-day, and were most hospitably received by the Russian Consul and his secretary. We spend a few hours very pleasantly mth the members of the Belgian mission, one of whom. Father Dedeken, has completed his eno'ao-ement, and is about to return to Europe. As he has an appointment at Shanghai, he mil go mth us to the coast, and perhaps accompany us to Europe. He speaks Chinese, and as he is a man of strong will \Ye are glad to have our party reenforced by him. His Chinese servant, Bartholomeus, who is to accompany him, is honest — which few Chinese servants appear to be — but very obstinate, which, on the contrary, seems to be very common in China.

Prince Hemy, Father Dedeken, Rachmed, Bartholomeus, and myself form the nucleus of the expedition. AVe have, too, an interpreter named Abdullah, who speaks Chinese and Mogul, and

ABDULLAH, TILE INTERPRETER.

FATHER DEDEKEN.

who accompanied the celebrated Prjevalsky. He seems to be an honest sort of fellow, but his vanity, his boastfulness, and his talkativeness make us very uneasy.

His account of what he went through in the Tsaidame alarms our followers, and he seems bent upon dissuading us from undertaking anything out of the beaten tracks. It must be added that the Russian Consul at Kuldja is not much more encouraging,

Q ACROSS THIBET.

and wlien Piince Henry tells liim we are going to try to reach Batang he smiles incredulously, and advises him not to be lured on by that idea. He points out to us that we have no escort, no felt tent, no Chinese passport. But experience has taught us that one can get on without either of these three things which he regarded as indispensable. As regards the passport, I must say that the main cause of our success was our omission to give notice of our journey to the Tsong li Yamen at Pekin. By asking for a passport to travel in those parts of China which have been little visited we should have excited the attention of Chinese diplomacy. The Mandarins would have given us the warmest letters of recommendation, and then, as soon as our itinerary was known, would have sent orders for every sort of means to be used to stop us on the road, and compel us to turn back. Such has been the lot of all travelers in China, from the late Prjevalsky down to Richthofen, Count Bela-Szechny, and so many others who have been stopped in their journeys by various devices.

After having completed our caravan as best we could at Kuldja, all we wanted, in order to continue our journey, was the authorization of the Chinese governor of the province. This was granted us after a visit in which etiquette was very carefully observed, insomuch that we were offered three cups of tea and a bottle of champagne, and the Governor gave us two safe-conducts to take us to the frontiers of the province of Hi.

September 12. — To-day the small European colony kindly escorts us to the gate of the town, and cordially wishes us a safe journey and happy return home.

And so at last we find ourselves in the saddle. We first make in an easterly direction, but change our course as soon as we have crossed the Tien-Chan, as it is Tonquin that we have in view. Shall we ever get there, and, if so, by what route ? There is all the old continent to cross, the least known portion of China, Thibet and its highlands, the deserts and the deep rivers, to say nothing of the human beings who look upon every stranger as an enemy. All this I might have said to myself, and to these

IN THE PROVINCE OF ILL 7

reflections miglit liave added tliat we were only Ave or six to face an unknown situation before whicli so many otliers, better equipped and prepared, had quailed. But I must confess that I had not one of these rhetorical thoughts in my head when once I found myself fairly started, abandoning myself to the pleasure of being in the open and looking about me with the eager curiosity of the traveler whose eyes, almost starting from their orbits, scan the horizon like a hungry hawk in search of prey.

After getting quit of the dust, which reminds me of Turkestan, the soil, the landscape and the cultivation of the plain recall the neighborhood of Samarkand and Tashkendt. The beardless fa'ces, the sunken eyes, and the long dresses of the men show that one is in China, The fertility of the valley of Hi is remarkable, so that for the last few years its population has been growing very rapidly. A great many of the Tarantchis who had fled to Russian territory are coming back to the places which their forefathers had cultivated, and a number of emigrants come from Kashgar, and even from Eastern China; but it will l^e a long time before the inhabitants are numerous enough to cultivate to the full extent this region, which would feed hundreds of thousands.

Leaving the valley of Hi to our right, as far as Mazar, built upon an affluent of the Kach, we followed a very good road, frequently coming upon villages which have been abandoned by the Tarantchis, who, having taken part in the massacre of the Chinese, fled when the province of Hi was transferred from Russia to China. The houses are falling into ruins, and are gradually disappearing amid a growth of willows, poplars, and vines; weeds choke up the gardens; the irrigating canals are dried up, and the fields are fallow. Deserted though the soil is, however, it has not ceased to be generous ; it is arrayed in verdure, and its aspect is bright and cheerful.

One of our men recognizes the house in which he was born. The roof has fallen in, the door has been carried off, for fuel no doubt, tlie walls are all cracked, and tliere are patches of barley grooving at tlie extremity of the hearthstone. The Tarantchi was overcome with grief at the sight of the place all in ruins, and recalled how happily he had lived there with his parents, what fine crops they grew^, and how cheap the food was.

I asked him why he had not remained there.

" We killed too many Chinese, Solons, and Sibos," he replied, " and upon the Chinese returning we fled."

" Now that you have crossed the frontier, will you return to Djarkent ? "

" Heaven preserve me, no ! The soil is not good, and water is scarce. I shall go to Kashgar, where the family of one of my wives lives."

" Were you not married at Djarkent ! "

" Yes, and I had a child as well. He died the day before I came to offer 3"ou m}^ services, and I gave my wife back to her father. I am quite free."

THE CARAVAN ON THE MARCH.

KIRGHIZ AND KALMUCKS.

The facility with which this Mussulman abandoned his wife surprised me, but in this country it appears to be quite common. What this Tarantchi told me about Hi was repeated to me by many others. Most of those who live in Eussian territory are on the lookout for a chance of slipping across the frontier. ^ The •Chinese Mandarins have the wit to entice them; they do not ask them for papers. They let them settle on the uncultivated lands, and do not bother them about the past.

In the province of Hi, beyond Mazar, we meet a great many Siberian Kirghiz, whom the excellence of the pasturages along the affluents of the Hi has attracted. They have kept the chiefs whom they had elected, being Russian subjects. By order of the Chinese Mandarin, and with the assent of the tribes, these chiefs mil transmit theii' powers to their descendants.

Side by side with these very wealthy Kirghiz we see some very poor Kalmucks. The rich pastures and flocks belong to -the former, while the latter are relegated to the less fertile tracts, which they cultivate without gaining a sufficiency. These Kahnucks are certainly not taking in appearance. They are frail, badly fed, badly housed, badly clad, and have a placid rather than an energetic and intelligent aii\ Nevertheless, they have for some time been intrusted with the defense of the'country,^ and they must not leave the place assigned to them without asking permission from their chief. They are not only bound to the soil, but are liable to be requisitioned for police or orderly duty, and must have in readiness the saber, the flint-lock gun, or the bow. Their ^' banners," to the number of twenty, distributed over the Tien-Chan, play more or less the same part as those families which in Austria were established in the south of the empii^e in the region of the "military frontiers," as they were styled. Their neighbors do not appear to hold them in high esteem, for a Kirghiz, to whom I observed how mild a physiognomy these Moguls have, replied with a laugh : " That is true. They are as mild as cows." " In what way ? "

10 AGBOSS THIBET.

" Because tliey can be milked without any trouble."

It appears tliat the Kirghiz, who are daring, well armed, and unscrupulous, do not think tmce about cheating and pillaging these Moguls. As the plunderers are Mussulmans they can easily settle matters with their consciences, seeing that the victims are Buddhists, that is to say, people who have no " book," neither a Bible nor a Koran, and so are of no account.

The Chinese authorities intervene but rarely to mete out justice to those who are aggrieved; the offenders are nearly always out of reach in the mountains, where they find it so easy to hide, and then again it is easy, in this case, to obtain from their family or tribe either a tax which may be in arrears or a present which in ordinary times would be withheld. But when brigandage has reached such a point that there is no sort of vsecurity the authorities resort to a ruse. By dint of promises and fair words, the chief who is the instigator of the trouble is enticed into the town and got rid of in some Avay or other. For instance, he is put into a cage between two impaling poles, and, by way of warning to offenders, he is left to die in this horrible posture. Sometimes it is a week before his agony ends in death. Having lost their leader, the nomads are thrown more or less into confusion, and advantage is taken of this to obtain some kind of submission.

The Chinese authorities have succeeded in embodying a certain number of Kirghiz, in registering them, so to speak. Thus we observed that the horsemen whom we meet wear round the neck a small tablet in a felt bag. When I ask what that means, I am. told that for some time past every Kirghiz who is going into the town must first appear before his leader and ask him for one of these tablets, upon which his name is written in Turkish, in Chinese, and in Mogul. It is a passport which enables him to move about freely in the bazaars, and in times of disturbance any Kirghiz caught without it is arrested by the Chinese soldiers and visited with the most terrible punishments. On returning to his tribe the traveler has to return the passport to his chief,.

THE RIVER KUNOEZ. 11

and in this way it is possible to ascertain who are absent, and to exercise some sort of police control in the mountains. These men, riding about with the tablet flapping against their chests, enable one to realize the enormous power of an administration when opposed to the weakness of private interests without cohesion. The Chinese authorities have succeeded by dint of patience in getting the whip hand of these nomads, who used to make mock of them, and have put the yoke of the law upon their necks.

September 15. — To-day we left Mazar, and if the bridge over the Kach had not been carried away by a storm we should have crossed that river so as to reach the valley of the Kungez by a neighboring pass. But we were compelled to cross the mountain fui'ther north and find out a ferry higher up the river. After having climbed up and then followed the undulations of the uncultivated hills, we descried the valley, a sort of terrace at the foot of the mountains, a grayish steppe dotted over with a few tents and nomad flocks. It is commanded to the east by a chain of mountains more elevated than that to the north, and the slopes of which seem to us quite bare, while the summits are not white with snow.

The banks of the river present a somewhat attractive appearance, the stream flowing; alons; like a ribbon amid verdure formed by poplars, willows, tamarisks which still bear a fev/ flowers, liquorice-plants, barberries, and wild raspberries. There is abundance of water, and the grass is thick wherever the river reaches, while pheasants swarm in the undergrowth.

Passing a deserted village, we cross the small stream of Nilka and leave the marshy valley for the high plateau which overhangs it. In the midst of taU. grass we come here and there upon cleared plots where the Moguls have their felt tents, which ai'e smaller than those of the Kirghiz, lower and more pointed at the smnmit. These Moguls are busy threshing the wheat in the open air, in the same way as other primitive peoples who do not employ any machine. A pole is put into the ground in the center of tlie wheat, which is laid out upon the ground, and oxen are tied to this pole and made to tramp round in a line, children driving them along mth a stick. These children are stark naked and very weakly in appearance. Their stomachs are protuberant, and their skin, exposed constantly to the sun, is nearly black, while it seems to be merely thrown loosely over their frame, and to be about to come off whenever they raise their arms and cause their angular shoulder-blades to protrude.

Septeiiiber 16. — This evening we reach the banks of the river, which is at least 650 feet wide at the point where we are to cross it, for it branches out and forms numerous small islands, while the current is very impetuous. We hope that in the morning, when the water is lowest, we shall get our caravan over without mishap before sunrise. From our bivouac we can distinguish to the north white specks in the plain, at the foot of the mountains. These, it appears, are the tents of the lamas engaged upon the harvest ; and when it is over they will return to winter in the monastery built upon the left bank of the river.

We are now in a Buddhist country, in a land where the people believe in the transmigration of the soul from one body to another. This does not tend to respect for the human body or to regard for the dead. While walking through the reed-beds in search of small birds for our natural history collection, my foot comes in contact with the upper part of a human skull. It is quite white, stripped cleaner than could have been done by the cleverest medical student. Upon examining it, I find that it is the very image of the Kirghiz skulls which I have had in my hand in Turkestan, there being the same depression of the occiput, the same breadth of cheek, the same prominent eyebrows, the same protruding cheek-bones, but with the forehead apparently less developed and rather lower, though quite as receding. We may assume that this skull was that of a man who did not possess any very marked intelligence, who was short in statm^e — as I learnt from the thigh-bone, which I picked up

EXPOSING THE DEAD.

a little further — and who had excellent teetli, as is proved by a fragment of his lower jaw. The bits of clothing hanging from the thorn bushes show that he was not a man of wealth.

A LAMA DOCTOR.

This was the place were his remains were exposed as soon as the soul had passed into a better body. Four stakes with bits of stuff at the end of them indicated that the corpse was deposited there, and the Avild Ijeasts, the l:)irds of prey, and no doubt the dogs from tlie adjoining tents, have cleared away the terrestrial envelope of this Mogul, devouring his flesh and grinding his bones, and then the process of time and of weather completed the work of destruction. There remain only a whitened skull, a half -gnawed thigh-bone, and a fragment of jaw; the soul has taken its flight, and the bits of stuff at the end of the stakes are praying for it, for, inscribed in black letters upon a yellow ground, are marvelous supplications brought from Lhassa.

September 17. — To-day, as we were certain of being able to overtake our caravan, which will be delayed in its progress by having to cross the ferry, we paid a visit to the Grand Lama, the head of the monastery. Our approach to the tents was heralded by the fmious barking of some splendid long-haired dogs. The noise brings out the lamas, young and old, who drive away the angry mastiffs by throA\dng stones at them. We explain the object of our visit to the oldest of them, and he sends on in advance two young monks, and himself conducts us to the residence of his superior. The person who acts as our cicerone has an enormous head, a rather long neck, small eyes, and a big face covered with warts, so that his physiognomy would not be very pleasing but for the mouth and the smile playing upon his thick lips. It appears that this worthy man, whose age it would be very difficult to guess, is a celebrated doctor. His headdress is a greasy leather cap surmounted with a tuft, a small cap such as might fit a chorister boy, and which is much too small for so huge a head, upon which it produces much the same effect as would a wafer on the top of an orange. For a dress he has a long serge robe coming down to the feet and fastened round the waist with a belt, while his small feet are encased in untanned leather, which does duty at once as stocking and boot.

The Grand Lama received us very affably at the entrance to his tent of white felt, which was larger than any of the others. He himself drew aside the curtain, and invited us into his residence ; and we, as soon as we had entered, seated our-

THE GRAND LAMA. 15

■selves ill Eastern fasliion to tlie left of the aperture. The yellowlooking little man asked us as to our health, offered us the services of his doctor, and talked to us in the most paternal and friendly tone. Leaving our interpreter to answer for us, we proceeded to inspect at our ease, but with due discretion, this incarnation of Buddha and his abode.

The Grand Lama appears to be about sixty. Like all the priests of his creed, he wears his hair short, and being beardless by nature he has no need to shave. His features are regulai', especially by comparison with those of his doctor. He has rather a broad face, but the black e}^es are very intelligent, the mouth is delicate, and the eyelids veiy clearly defined. He is easy in his gestui'es, and has a good deal of unction in the voice, I should not be at all surprised if he ruled the fraternity excellently, for he gives the impression of being a man of mark. From time to time he takes a pinch of red snuff, which he puts out on to the nail of his thumb from an oval jade bottle with a silver stopper. He takes care that we are served with some tea with butter in it, which is the favorite drink of the Moguls and the Thibetans, and which I found very much to my liking upon tastino; it for the first time.

Behind my host there stands upon a slab a gilt statue, which represents the Grand Lama of Lhassa. The Grand Lama seems to be very like him, and has the same smiling physiognomy.

There is nothing in the tent which indicates any effort at cleanliness or luxury. The whole of the furniture seems to be about equally neglected, and the only apparent value possessed by anything is a row of small jade vases placed upon a coffer covered with some yellow material opposite to the entrance ; an altar has been raised, and some sacred images are inclosed in a sort of tabernacle or movable chapel, the shape of which reminds me of those I have seen in Italy ; and, as is the case in Italy and also in Spain, these sacred images of Buddha are carried to the residences of such persons as ask for them in order to facilitate "their cm^e, which the doctor also helps to effect by means of remedies that have received the priestly benedictiou. Aiuoug^ these remedies are some tndy extraordinary oues, of so singular an origin that I dare not explain them, for fear of being considered improper.

Presently there is a great noise of drums and cymbals, which is the call to prayer. So we take leave of the Grand Lama, who rises, offers us his hand, and wishes us a safe journey, with the same smiling face Avhich is seen alike in the Buddhas of statues and in the Buddhas of flesh and blood. The aged priest readily gives us permission to visit the pagoda built close to the mnter monastery.

As we go out we notice the cymbal-players, who are standing in front of a large tent which is used for religious service during the harvest. The lamas are nearly all out in the fields, and the number of Avorshipers is very small, the congregation consisting mainly of youths with skull-caps on their clean-shaven heads, and a long monkish robe fastened round the Avaist with a belt.